Lima

This article is about the capital of Peru. For other uses, see Lima (disambiguation).

"Limeño" redirects here. For the Spanish bullfighter, see José Martínez Limeño.

Lima (/ˈliːmə/ ^ⓘ LEE-mə; locally [ˈlima]), founded in 1535 as the Ciudad de los Reyes (locally [sjuˈdat de los ˈreʝes], Spanish for "City of Kings"), is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of the central coastal part of the country, overlooking the Pacific Ocean. The city is considered the political, cultural, financial and commercial center of Peru. Due to its geostrategic importance, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network has categorized it as a "beta" tier city. Jurisdictionally, the metropolis extends mainly within the province of Lima and in a smaller portion, to the west, within the Constitutional Province of Callao, where the seaport and the Jorge Chávez Airport are located. Both provinces have regional autonomy since 2002.

Lima Ciudad de Los Reyes
Capital city
San Isidro skyline Archbishop's Palace and Metropolitan Cathedral Fountain of Plaza Mayor Park of the Reserve San Francisco el Grande Basilica La Marina Lighthouse Miraflores skyline
Flag Coat of arms
Nickname(s):  Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) La Tres Veces Coronada Villa (The Three Times Crowned Ville) La Perla del Pacífico (The Pearl of the Pacific)
Motto(s):  Hoc Signum Vere Regum Est (Latin) "This is the real sign of the Kings")
Lima
Coordinates: 12°03′36″S 77°02′15″W
Country	Peru
Province	Lima
Established	18 January 1535
Founded by	Francisco Pizarro
Government
• Type	Municipalidad
• Body	Municipality of Lima
• Mayor	Rafael López Aliaga
Area
• City	2,672.3 km2 (1,031.8 sq mi)
• Urban	800 km2 (300 sq mi)
• Metro	2,819.3 km2 (1,088.5 sq mi)
Elevation [1]	0–1,550 m (0–5,090 ft)
Population  (2023)[2]
• City	10,092,000
• Rank	2nd in South America 1st in Peru
• Urban	9,751,717
• Urban density	12,000/km2 (32,000/sq mi)
• Metro	11,283,787[3]
• Metro density	4,002.3/km2 (10,366/sq mi)
Demonyms	Limeño/a
GDP (PPP, constant 2015 values)
• Year	2023
• Total	$210.4 billion[4]
Time zone	UTC−05:00 (PET)
UBIGEO	15000
Area code	1
Website	www.munlima.gob.pe
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Historic Centre of Lima
Type	Cultural
Criteria	iv
Designated	1988, 1991 (12th, 15th sessions)
Reference no.	500
Region	Latin America and the Caribbean

The 2023 census projection indicates that the city of Lima has an estimated population of 10,092,000 inhabitants, making it the most populated city in the country, and the second most populous in the Americas after São Paulo.^[5][6] Together with the seaside city of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area, which encompasses a total of 10,151,200 inhabitants.^{[5][note 1]} When considering the constitutional province of Callao, the total agglomeration reaches a population of 11,342,100 inhabitants, one of the thirty most populated urban agglomerations in the world. The city is marked by severe urban segregation between the poor pueblos jóvenes, populated in large part by immigrants from the Andean highlands, and wealthy neighbourhoods. From 1985 onwards, barriers known as "walls of shame" run across much of the city separating rich areas from the poor.^[7][8]

Lima was named by natives in the agricultural region known by native Peruvians as Limaq. It became the capital and most important city in the Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru (República del Perú). Around one-third of the national population now lives in its metropolitan area.

In October 2013, Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games; these games were held at venues in and around Lima, and were the largest sporting event ever hosted by the country. It also hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Meetings of 2008 and 2016, the Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group in October 2015, the United Nations Climate Change Conference in December 2014, and the Miss Universe 1982 contest. In November 2024, it hosted the APEC summit for the third time.^[9]

Etymology

According to early Spanish articles, the Lima area was once called Itchyma,^{[citation needed]} after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century, a famous oracle in the Rímac Valley had come to be known by visitors as Limaq (Limaq, pronounced [ˈli.mɑq], which means "talker" or "speaker" in the coastal Quechua that was the area's primary language before the Spanish arrival). This oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted: the chronicles show "Límac" replacing "Ychma" as the common name for the area.^[10]

Modern scholars speculate that the word "Lima" originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq. Linguistic evidence seems to support this theory, as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position.

The city was founded in 1535 under the name City of Kings (Spanish: Ciudad de los Reyes), because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse, and Lima became the city's name of choice; on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru, both Lima and Ciudad de los Reyes can be seen together.

The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac, and many people erroneously assume that this is because its original Inca name is "Talking River" (the Incas spoke a highland variety of Quechua, in which the word for "talker" was pronounced [ˈrimɑq]).^[11] However, the original inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua.

Later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river that runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river; however, Spanish documents from the colonial period show the opposite to be true.^[10]

In other languages such as Malay or Indonesian, Lima means five.

Symbols

Flag

Main article: Flag of Lima

The Flag of Lima is historically known as "Banner of the City of the Kings of Peru". It is formed by a golden-colored silk canvas and in the center is the embroidered coat of arms of the city.^[12]

Coat of arms

Main article: Coat of arms of Lima

The coat of arms of Lima was granted by the Spanish Crown on 7 December 1537, through a real cédula signed in Valladolid by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and his mother, Queen Joanna of Castile. It is formed by a main field azure, with three gold crowns of kings placed in a triangle and above them a gold star that touches the three crowns with its points, and in the orle some gold letters that say: Hoc signum vere regum est (This is the true sign of the kings). Outside the shield are the initials I and K (Ioana and Karolus), which are the names of Queen Joanna and her son Charles V. A star is placed above the letters and two crowned sabre-faced eagles embracing them, which hold the coat of arms.

Anthem

The anthem of Lima was heard for the first time on 18 January 2008, in a solemn session that was attended by the then President of Peru Alan García, the mayor of the city Luis Castañeda Lossio and various authorities. Those in charge of creating the anthem were the councillors Luis Enrique Tord (author of the lyrics), Euding Maeshiro (composer of the melody) and the musical producer Ricardo Núñez (arranger).^[13]

History

Main articles: History of Lima and Timeline of Lima

Pre-Columbian era

Pachacámac, built from 3rd century to 15th century, was one of the most important pre-Columbian centers of pilgrimage on the Peruvian Coast.^[14] In the image the Temple of the Moon.

Although the history of the city of Lima began with its Spanish foundation in 1535, the territory formed by the valleys of the Rímac, Chillón and Lurín rivers was occupied by pre-Inca settlements, which were grouped under the Lordship of Ichma.^[15] The Maranga culture and the Lima culture were the ones that established and forged an identity in these territories. During those times, the sanctuaries of Lati (current Puruchuco) and Pachacámac (the main pilgrimage sanctuary during the time of the Incas) were built, it was built from 3rd century to 15th century by several civilizations, and which was used even until the time the Spanish conquistadors arrived.

These cultures were conquered by the Wari Empire during the height of its imperial expansion. It is during this time that the ceremonial center of Cajamarquilla was built.^[16][17] As Wari importance declined, local cultures regained autonomy, highlighting the Chancay culture. Later, in the 15th century, these territories were incorporated into the Inca Empire.^[18] From this time we can find a great variety of huacas throughout the city, some of which are under investigation.

The most important or well-known huacas are those of Huallamarca, Pucllana, and Mateo Salado, all located in the middle of Lima districts with very high urban growth, so they are surrounded by business and residential buildings; however, that does not prevent its perfect state of conservation.

During the time of the Incas, the valley of Lima was highly populated and organized into an Inca province, or huamani (wamani), called Pachacamac. The colonial Spanish historian Bernabé Cobo mentions that the huamani of Pachacamac was subdivided into three hunu of tributary men, rather than the conventional four hunu. It has also been argued that a fourth hunu may have existed but was not recorded.^[19] The primary meaning of the word hunu in Quechua is 10,000, leading to the assumption that 30,000 families lived in the valley. This assumption has been criticized, including by the historian Åke Wedin, because hunu can also mean countless, and therefore could simply refer to a very large group of men. The scholar John Rowe suggested that the valley had a population of about 150,000 during Inca times.^[20]

Whatever the case, each recorded hunu of Pachacamac had a head town, corresponding to some of the most populated settlements in the valley: Caraguayllo (Carabayllo), Maranga, and Surco (or Sulco, also known as the archaeological site Armatambo).^[19]

... this valley was divided, according to the government of the Inca kings, into three 'unos' or governorships of ten thousand families each; the town of Caraguayllo was the head of the first; that of Maranga, which is situated in the middle of the valley, of the second, and the third, that of Surco; this last town was the largest of all ...^[21]

The inhabitants of the pre-Columbian town of Surco were relocated to the modern district of Santiago de Surco early in the colonial period. In addition to Aymara and Quechua, the inhabitants of the northern part of the valley, specifically in the hunu of Carabayllo, spoke an additional language believed to be Quingnam.^[22]

Regarding the pre-Hispanic settlement of Lima, it is recorded that this part of the valley, near the Rimac river, was administered by a curaca, or local lord, named Taulichusco. He was a former yana, or servant, of Mama Vilo, one of the wives of Emperor Huayna Capac. Lima was awarded to Taulichusco in recognition of his services to the Inca royalty. Some of Peru's most important buildings were erected on the sites of major constructions of the pre-Hispanic settlement. For example, the residential palace of Taulichusco was located where the modern Palacio de Gobierno of Peru stands today. A temple called Puma Inti once occupied the site where the Metropolitan Cathedral of Lima is now, and the Municipal Theatre of Lima is situated where a pre-Columbian structure, referred to as Huaca El Cabildo by the Spaniards, once stood. These buildings were centered around a plaza, which was later expanded to become the Plaza Mayor. The Huaca de Aliaga and Huaca Riquelme were other major buildings near the plaza. Other nearby constructions included the temple-oracle of Rímac, one of the main places of worship in the valley, also known as the so-called "huaca grande" that once stood in Barrios Altos.^[23]

Spanish founding

The colonial Lima's coat of arms official since 7 December 1537^[24]

In 1532, the Spanish and their indigenous allies (from the ethnic groups subdued by the Incas) under the command of Francisco Pizarro took monarch Atahualpa prisoner in the city of Cajamarca. Although a ransom was paid, he was sentenced to death for political and strategic reasons. After some battles, the Spanish conquered their empire. The Spanish Crown named Francisco Pizarro governor of the lands he had conquered. Pizarro decided to found the capital in the Rímac river valley,^[25] after a failed attempt to establish it in Jauja.

He considered that Lima was strategically located, close to a favorable coast for the construction of a port but prudently far from it in order to prevent attacks by pirates and foreign powers, on fertile lands and with a suitable cool climate. Thus, on 6 January 1535, Lima was founded with the name "City of the Kings", named in this way in honor of the epiphany,^[26][27] on territories that had been of the kuraka Taulichusco. The explanation of this name is due to the fact that "around the same time in January, the Spaniards were looking for the place to lay the foundation for the new city, [...] not far from the Pachacámac sanctuary, near the Rímac river.

However, as had happened with the region, initially called New Castile and later Peru, the City of the Kings soon lost its name in favor of "Lima". Pizarro, with the collaboration of Nicolás de Ribera, Diego de Agüero and Francisco Quintero personally traced the Plaza Mayor and the rest of the city grid, building the Viceroyalty Palace (today transformed into the Government Palace of Peru, which hence retains the traditional name of Casa de Pizarro) and the Cathedral, whose first stone Pizarro laid with his own hands.^[28] In August 1536, the flourishing city was besieged by the troops of the Inca general Quizu Yupanqui under orders from the monarch Manco Inca Yupanqui who was in Cusco, but the Spanish and their indigenous allies managed to defeat them. The Huaylas (Wayllas) army's assistance was of special importance to the Spanish. The army arrived personally led by Contarhuancho^[29] (Kuntur-Wanchu), a secondary wife of the deceased Emperor Wayna Qhapaq and now a respected kuraka of half the province of Huaylas, the Hanan Huaylas or Upper Huaylas moiety. Contarhuancho came to Lima after receiving a plea for help in a quipu message from her daughter, the Huaylas-Inca princess Doña Inés Huaylas Yupanqui.

In the following years, Lima gained prestige by being designated the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru and the seat of a Real Audiencia in 1543. Since the location of the coastal city was conditioned by the ease of communications with Spain, a close bond with the port of Callao was soon established.^[30]

Colonial time

Renaissance Metropolitan Cathedral of Lima, built between 1602 and 1797 in the Plaza Mayor

Basilica of San Francisco, built between 1657 and 1672

For the next century, it prospered as the center of an extensive trade network that integrated the viceroyalty with the Americas, Europe, and East Asia. But the city was not without its dangers; violent earthquakes destroyed a large part of it between 1586 and 1687, leading to a great deal of construction activity. It is then when aqueducts, starlings and retaining walls appear before the flooding of the rivers, the bridge over the Rímac is finished, the cathedral is built, and numerous hospitals, convents and monasteries are built. Then we can see that the city is articulated around its neighborhoods. Another threat was the presence of pirates and corsairs in the Pacific Ocean, which motivated the construction of the Walls of Lima between 1684 and 1687.^[17]

The 1687 earthquake marked a turning point in the history of Lima, since it coincided with a recession in trade due to economic competition with other cities such as Buenos Aires. With the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717, the political demarcations were reorganized, and Lima only lost some territories that actually already enjoyed their autonomy. In 1746 a strong earthquake severely damaged the city and destroyed Callao, forcing a massive reconstruction effort by Viceroy José Antonio Manso de Velasco.^[31]

In the second half of the 18th century, Enlightenment ideas about public health and social control influenced the development of the city. During this period, the Peruvian capital was affected by the Bourbon reforms as it lost its monopoly on foreign trade and its control over the important mining region of Upper Peru. This economic weakening led the elite of the city to depend on the positions granted by the viceregal government and the Church, which contributed to keeping them more linked to the Crown than to the cause of independence.

The greatest political-economic impact that the city experienced at that time occurred with the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776, which changed the course and orientations imposed by the new mercantile traffic. Among the buildings built during this period there is the Coliseo de Gallos, the Acho Bullring and the General Cemetery. The first two were erected to regulate these popular activities, centralizing them in one place, while the cemetery put an end to the practice of burying the dead in churches, considered unhealthy by public authorities.

• 
  "The City of the Kings of Lima, royal high court, principal city of the kingdom of the Indies, residence of the viceroy[...]", painting of 1615 by the Inca painter Guamán Poma. Royal Library, Denmark.^[32]
• 
  The unfinished cathedral in the Plaza Mayor, painting of 1680. Museo de América (Madrid).^[33]
• 
  View of Lima and the Tapada limeña (a colonial women fashion) in a painting of 1842 by d'Orbigny and Benoît. Museum of the Americas, Spain.^[34]
• 
  Lima as seem from the Rímac District, painting of 1850 by Batta Molinelli^[35]
• 
  Colonial Calle de los Judíos (Jewish quarter) (Lima) in 1866 by Manuel A. Fuentes and Firmin Didot, Brothers, Sons & Co. University of Chicago Library.^[36]
• 
  Colonial Calles de la Oca and de Bodegones (Lima) in 1866 by Manuel A. Fuentes and Firmin Didot, Brothers, Sons & Co. University of Chicago Library.^[36]
• 
  Puente de Piedra Bridge, the former Arco del Puente Gate and the Walls of Lima in 1878 by El Viajero Ilustrado. Old Fund of the University of Seville.^[37]

Independence

Painting of José de San Martín during the Declaration of Independence of Peru in the Plaza Mayor, on July 28, 1821

A combined expedition of Argentine and Chilean independence fighters led by General Don José de San Martín landed in southern Lima in 1820, but did not attack the city. Faced with a naval blockade and guerrilla action on the mainland, Viceroy José de la Serna was forced to evacuate the city in July 1821 to save the Royalist army. Fearing a popular uprising and lacking the means to impose the order, the City Council invited San Martín to enter the city, signing a Declaration of Independence at his request.

Proclaimed the independence of Peru in 1821 by General San Martín,^[38] Lima became the capital of the new Republic of Peru. Thus, it was the seat of the government of the liberator and also the seat of the first Constituent Congress that the country had.^[39] The war lasted for two more years, during which the city changed hands many times and suffered abuses from both sides. By the time the war was decided, on 9 December 1824, at the Battle of Ayacucho, Lima had been considerably impoverished.

Republican era

This was a gate of the colonial wall of Lima, the "Arco del Puente", its partially wooden structures were consumed by a fire caused by street vendors in 1879.^[40] The colonial wall of Lima had ten gates,^[41][40] now demolished.

Edificio Rímac

After the War of Independence, Lima became the capital of the Republic of Peru, but the country's economic stagnation and political disorder paralyzed its urban development. This situation was reversed in the 1850s, when the growing public and private income derived from the export of guano allowed a rapid expansion of the city. In the following twenty years, the State financed the construction of large public buildings to replace the old viceregal establishments, among these are the Central Market, the General Slaughterhouse, the Mental Asylum, the Penitentiary and the Hospital Dos de Mayo. There were also improvements in communications; in 1850 a railway line between Lima and Callao was completed and in 1870 an iron bridge was inaugurated over the Rímac River, baptized as Puente Balta. In 1872 the colonial City Walls were demolished by the US engineer Henry Meiggs under contract with the Peruvian government,^[42] in anticipation of further urban growth in the future. However, this period of economic expansion also widened the gap between rich and poor, producing widespread social unrest.

During the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), the Chilean army occupied Lima after defeating Peruvian troops and reserves in the battles of San Juan and Miraflores. The city suffered from the invaders, who looted museums, public libraries and educational institutions. At the same time, angry mobs attacked wealthy citizens and the Asian colony, looting their properties and businesses.

20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, the construction of avenues that would serve as a matrix for the development of the city began.^[43] The avenues Paseo de la República, Leguía (today called Arequipa), Brasil and the landscaping Salaverry that headed south and Venezuela and Colonial avenues to the west joining the port of Callao.^[44]

In the 1930s the great constructions began with the remodeling of the Government Palace of Peru and the Palacio Municipal. These constructions reached their peak in the 1950s, during the government of Manuel A. Odría, when the great buildings of the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Education were built (Javier Alzamora Valdez Building, currently the seat of the Superior Court of Justice of Lima), the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Labor and the Hospitals of the Workers' Insurance and of the Employee as well as the National Stadium and several large housing units.^[45][46]

Also in those years a phenomenon began that changed the configuration of the city, which was the massive immigration of inhabitants from the interior of the country, producing the exponential growth of the capital's population and the consequent urban expansion.^[47] The new populations were settling on land near the center which was used as an agricultural area. The current districts of Lince, La Victoria to the south were populated; Breña and Pueblo Libre to the west; El Agustino, Ate and San Juan de Lurigancho to the east and San Martín de Porres and Comas to the north.

Lima in 2013

As an emblematic point of this expansion, in 1973 the self-managed community of Villa El Salvador (current district of Villa El Salvador) was created, located 30 km south of the city center and currently integrated into the metropolitan area.^[48] In the 1980s, terrorist violence added to the disorderly growth of the city the increase of settlers who arrived as internally displaced persons.^[47] In the 1940s, Lima started a period of rapid growth spurred by migration from the Andean region, as rural people sought opportunities for work and education. The population, estimated at 600,000 in 1940, reached 1.9 million by 1960 and 4.8 million by 1980.^[49] At the start of this period, the urban area was confined to a triangular area bounded by the city's historic center, Callao and Chorrillos; in the following decades settlements spread to the north, beyond the Rímac River, to the east, along the Central Highway and to the south.^[50] The new migrants, at first confined to slums in downtown Lima, led this expansion through large-scale land invasions, which evolved into shanty towns, known as pueblos jóvenes.^[51]

Geography

Lima as seen from the International Space Station

Lima at night from space

Coast of Miraflores

The urban area covers about 800 km² (310 sq mi). It is located on mostly flat terrain in the Peruvian coastal plain, within the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers. The city slopes gently from the shores of the Pacific Ocean into valleys and mountain slopes located as high as 1,550 meters (5,090 ft) above sea level. Within the city are isolated hills that are not connected to the surrounding hill chains, such as El Agustino, San Cosme, El Pino, La Milla, Muleria and Pro hills. The San Cristobal hill in the Rímac District, which lies directly north of the downtown area, is the local extreme of an Andean hill outgrowth.

Metropolitan Lima covers 2,672.28 km² (1,031.77 sq mi), of which 825.88 km² (318.87 sq mi) (31%) comprise the actual city and 1,846.40 km² (712.90 sq mi) (69%) the city outskirts.^[52] The urban area extends around 60 km (37 mi) from north to south and around 30 km (19 mi) from west to east. The city center is located 15 km (9.3 mi) inland at the shore of the Rímac River, a vital resource for the city, since it carries what will become drinking water for its inhabitants and fuels the hydroelectric dams that provide electricity to the area. While no official administrative definition for the city exists, it is usually considered to be composed of the central 30 of 43 districts of Lima Province, corresponding to an urban area centered around the historic Cercado de Lima district. The city is the core of the Lima Metro Area, one of the ten largest metro areas in the Americas. Lima is the world's third largest desert city, after Karachi, Pakistan, and Cairo, Egypt.

Climate

Lima has a mild climate, despite its location in the tropics and in a desert.^[53] Lima's proximity to the waters of the Pacific Ocean leads to intense maritime moderation of the temperatures, thereby making the climate much milder than those to be expected for a tropical desert, and thus Lima can be classified as a desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with subtropical temperature ranges.^[54] Temperatures rarely fall below 12 °C (54 °F) or rise above 30 °C (86 °F).^[55] Two distinct seasons can be identified: summer, December through April, and winter from June through September/October. May and October/November are generally transition months, with a more dramatic warm-to-cool weather transition in later May or/and earlier June.^[56] Situated onshore from the cold ocean waters, rainfall is extremely rare in Lima.

The summers, December through April, are sunny, hot, and muggy.^[57] Daily temperatures oscillate between lows of 18 to 22 °C (64 to 72 °F) and highs of 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F). Coastal fogs occur in some mornings and high clouds in some afternoons and evenings. Summer sunsets are colorful, known by locals as "cielo de brujas" (Spanish for "sky of witches"), since the sky commonly turns shades of orange, pink, and red around 7 pm.

Weather averages for the Jorge Chávez International Airport

During winter, June through October, the weather is dramatically different. Grey skies, breezy conditions, higher humidity, and cooler temperatures prevail. Long 10 to 15-day stretches of dark overcast skies are not uncommon. Persistent morning drizzle (garúa) frequently occurs from June through September, coating the streets with a thin layer of water that generally dries up by early afternoon. Winter temperatures vary little between day and night. They range from lows of 14 to 16 °C (57 to 61 °F) and highs of 16 to 19 °C (61 to 66 °F), rarely exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) except in the easternmost districts.^[58]

Relative humidity is always very high, particularly in the mornings.^[59] High humidity produces brief morning fog in the early summer and a usually persistent low cloud deck during the winter (generally develops in late May and persists until mid-November or even early December). The predominantly onshore flow makes the Lima area one of the cloudiest among the entire Peruvian coast. Lima has only 1284 hours of sunshine a year, 27.9 hours in August and 183 hours in April, which is exceptionally little for its latitude.^[60] By comparison, London has an average of 1653 hours, and Moscow 1731. Winter cloudiness prompts locals to seek sunshine in Andean valleys above 500 meters (1,600 ft) above sea level.

While relative humidity is high, rainfall is very low due to strong atmospheric stability. The severely low rainfall impacts the city's water supply, which originates from wells and from rivers that flow from the Andes.^[61] Inland districts receive anywhere between 10 and 60 mm (0.4 and 2.4 in) of rainfall per year, which accumulates mainly during the winter. Coastal districts receive only 10 to 30 mm (0.4 to 1.2 in). As previously mentioned, winter precipitation occurs as persistent morning drizzle. These are locally called 'garúa', 'llovizna' or 'camanchacas'. On the other hand, summer rain is infrequent and occurs in the form of isolated light and brief showers. These generally occur during afternoons and evenings when leftovers from Andean storms arrive from the east. The lack of heavy rainfall arises from high atmospheric stability caused, in turn, by the combination of cool waters from semi-permanent coastal upwelling and the presence of the cold Humboldt Current and warm air aloft associated with the South Pacific anticyclone.

Lima's climate (like most of coastal Peru) gets severely disrupted in El Niño events. Coastal waters usually average around 17–19 °C (63–66 °F), but get much warmer (as in 1998 when the water reached 26 °C (79 °F)). Air temperatures rise accordingly.

Climate data for Lima (Jorge Chávez International Airport), elevation 13 m (43 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1960–present)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	32.7 (90.9)	32.5 (90.5)	33.4 (92.1)	31.6 (88.9)	30.3 (86.5)	30.0 (86.0)	28.3 (82.9)	29.0 (84.2)	28.0 (82.4)	29.6 (85.3)	29.0 (84.2)	30.4 (86.7)	33.4 (92.1)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	26.2 (79.2)	27.4 (81.3)	27.2 (81.0)	24.6 (76.3)	21.7 (71.1)	19.6 (67.3)	19.0 (66.2)	18.6 (65.5)	19.0 (66.2)	19.9 (67.8)	21.7 (71.1)	23.8 (74.8)	22.4 (72.3)
Daily mean °C (°F)	23.3 (73.9)	24.2 (75.6)	23.8 (74.8)	21.5 (70.7)	19.4 (66.9)	18.0 (64.4)	17.4 (63.3)	16.9 (62.4)	17.1 (62.8)	17.9 (64.2)	19.4 (66.9)	21.2 (70.2)	20.0 (68.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	20.3 (68.5)	20.9 (69.6)	20.4 (68.7)	18.4 (65.1)	17.0 (62.6)	16.4 (61.5)	15.8 (60.4)	15.1 (59.2)	15.2 (59.4)	15.8 (60.4)	17.0 (62.6)	18.6 (65.5)	17.6 (63.6)
Record low °C (°F)	12.0 (53.6)	15.0 (59.0)	11.0 (51.8)	10.0 (50.0)	8.0 (46.4)	10.0 (50.0)	8.9 (48.0)	10.0 (50.0)	12.5 (54.5)	11.0 (51.8)	11.1 (52.0)	13.9 (57.0)	8.0 (46.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	0.8 (0.03)	0.4 (0.02)	0.4 (0.02)	0.1 (0.00)	0.3 (0.01)	0.7 (0.03)	1.0 (0.04)	1.5 (0.06)	0.7 (0.03)	0.2 (0.01)	0.1 (0.00)	0.2 (0.01)	6.4 (0.25)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)	0.7	0.7	0.7	0.3	1.1	2.3	3.0	4.1	3.1	1.2	0.4	0.5	18.2
Average relative humidity (%)	81	82	82	83	84	84	84	84	85	83	81	81	83
Mean monthly sunshine hours	185.2	166.3	188.5	181.9	112.9	44.6	36.4	28.5	35.2	59.9	103.4	129.9	1,272.7
Source 1: Deutscher Wetterdienst (precipitation, humidity and sun 1961–1990)[62][63][64]
Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)[65] Meteostat[66]

Climate data for Lima (Campo de Marte), elevation 123 m (404 ft), (1991–2020)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)	25.6 (78.1)	27.1 (80.8)	26.7 (80.1)	24.6 (76.3)	21.4 (70.5)	18.9 (66.0)	18.0 (64.4)	17.5 (63.5)	18.1 (64.6)	19.4 (66.9)	21.2 (70.2)	23.1 (73.6)	21.8 (71.3)
Daily mean °C (°F)	23.0 (73.4)	24.1 (75.4)	23.7 (74.7)	21.7 (71.1)	19.2 (66.6)	17.5 (63.5)	16.7 (62.1)	16.1 (61.0)	16.4 (61.5)	17.4 (63.3)	18.9 (66.0)	20.8 (69.4)	20.9 (69.6)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)	20.4 (68.7)	21.1 (70.0)	20.6 (69.1)	18.8 (65.8)	17.0 (62.6)	16.0 (60.8)	15.4 (59.7)	14.6 (58.3)	14.7 (58.5)	15.4 (59.7)	16.7 (62.1)	18.4 (65.1)	17.4 (63.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	0.6 (0.02)	0.5 (0.02)	0.4 (0.02)	0.1 (0.00)	0.4 (0.02)	1.3 (0.05)	2.1 (0.08)	1.9 (0.07)	1.2 (0.05)	0.5 (0.02)	0.5 (0.02)	0.3 (0.01)	9.8 (0.39)
Source: National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology of Peru (SENAMHI)[67]

Government

Government Palace of Peru

National

Lima is the capital city of the Republic of Peru and Lima Province. As such, it is home to the three branches of the Government of Peru.

The executive branch is headquartered in the Government Palace, located in the Plaza Mayor. All ministries are located in the city.

The legislative branch is headquartered in the Legislative Palace and is home to the Congress of the Republic of Peru.

Palace of Justice, Lima

Legislative Palace of Peru

The Judicial branch is headquartered in the Palace of Justice and is home to the Supreme Court of Peru. The Palace of Justice in Lima is seat of the Supreme Court of Justice the highest judicial court in Peru with jurisdiction over the entire territory of Peru.

Lima is seat of two of the 28-second highest or Superior Courts of Justice. The first and oldest Superior Court in Lima is the Superior Court of Justice, belonging to the Judicial District and. Due to the judicial organization of Peru, the highest concentration of courts is located in Lima despite the fact that its judicial district has jurisdiction over only 35 of the 43 districts.^[68] The Superior Court of the Cono Norte is the second Superior Court located in Lima and is part of the Judicial District of North Lima. This judicial district has jurisdiction over the remaining eight districts, all located in northern Lima.^[69]

Local

Main article: Metropolitan Municipality of Lima

The city is roughly equivalent to the Province of Lima, which is subdivided into 43 districts. The Metropolitan Municipality has authority over the entire city, while each district has its own local government. Unlike the rest of the country, the Metropolitan Municipality, although a provincial municipality, acts as and has functions similar to a regional government, as it does not belong to any of the 25 regions of Peru. Each of the 43 districts has their own district municipality that is in charge of its own district and coordinate with the metropolitan municipality.

Lima City Hall

Political system

Unlike the rest of the country, the Metropolitan Municipality has functions of regional government and is not part of any administrative region, according to Article 65. 27867 of the Law of Regional Governments enacted on 16 November 2002, 87 The previous political organization remains in the sense that a Governor is the political authority for the department and the city. The functions of this authority are mostly police and military. The same city administration covers the local municipal authority.

Lima has been rocked by corruption scandals: former mayors Susana Villaran (2011–2014) and Luis Castaneda (2003-2010 and 2014–2018) were remanded in custody as part of the bribery scandal involving the Brazilian construction company Odebrecht. Jorge Munoz (mayor from 2019 to 2022), was removed from office for illegally holding several offices and the related allowances.

International organizations

Lima is home to the headquarters of the Andean Community of Nations that is a customs union comprising the South American countries of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, among other regional and international organizations.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Lima

People of Lima

With a municipal population of 9,162,322 and 10,135,009 for the metropolitan area and a population density of 3,746 inhabitants per square kilometer (9,700/sq mi) as of 2017^[update],^[70] Lima ranks as the 30th most populous agglomeration in the world, as of 2014^[update], and the second biggest city in South America in terms of population within city limits, after São Paulo.^[71] Its population features a complex mix of racial and ethnic groups. Mestizos of mixed Amerindian and European (mostly Spanish and Italians) ancestry are the largest ethnic group, making up 69.9% of the population in 2018.^[70] Quechua are the second largest ethnic group, making up 16.8% of the population. European Peruvians are the third largest group, making up 7.4% of the population.^[70] Many are of Spanish, Italian or German descent; many others are of French, British, or Croatian descent.^[72][73] The minorities in Lima include the Afro-Peruvians, who make up 2.9% of the population, whose African ancestors were initially brought to the region as slaves, and the Aymara, who make up 0.7% of the population. Communities of Jews of European descent and Middle Easterners are also found in Lima. 2.3% of Lima's population identify with other ethnic groups, including Asians. Lima's Asian community is made up primarily of Chinese (Cantonese) and Japanese descendants, whose ancestors came mostly in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The city has, by far, the largest Chinese diaspora in Latin America.^[74]

Market in the Plaza of the Inquisition (Lima) by Johann Moritz Rugendas, ca. 1843^[75]

The first settlement in what would become Lima was made up of 117 housing blocks. In 1562, another district was built across the Rímac River and in 1610, the first stone bridge was built. Lima then had a population of around 26,000; blacks made up around 40% and whites made up around 38%.^[76] By 1748, the white population totaled 16,000–18,000.^[77] In 1861, the number of inhabitants surpassed 100,000 and by 1927, had doubled.^{[citation needed]}

During the early 20th century, thousands of immigrants came to the city, including people of European descent. They organized social clubs and built their own schools. Examples are The American-Peruvian school, the Alianza Francesa de Lima, the Lycée Franco-Péruvien and the hospital Maison de Sante; Markham College, the British-Peruvian school in Monterrico, Antonio Raymondi District Italian School, the Pestalozzi Swiss School and also, several German-Peruvian schools.

Chinese and a lesser number of Japanese came to Lima and established themselves in the Barrios Altos neighborhood in downtown Lima. Lima residents refer to their Chinatown as Barrio chino or Calle Capon and the city's ubiquitous Chifa restaurants – small, sit-down, usually Chinese-run restaurants serving the Peruvian spin on Chinese cuisine – can be found by the dozens in this enclave.

In 2014, the National Institute for Statistics and Information (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica e Informatica) reported that the population in Lima's 49 districts was 9,752,000 people, including the Constitutional Province of Callao. The city and (metropolitan area) represents around 29% of the national population. Of the city's population 48.7% are men and 51.3% are women. The 49 districts in Metropolitan Lima are divided into 5 areas: Cono Norte (North Lima), Lima Este (East Lima), Constitutional Province of Callao, Lima Centro (Central Lima) and Lima Sur (South Lima). The largest areas are Lima Norte with 2,475,432 people and Lima Este with 2,619,814 people, including the largest single district San Juan de Lurigancho, which hosts 1 million people.^[52]

Lima is considered a "young" city. According to INEI, by mid 2014 the age distribution in Lima was: 24.3% between 0 and 14, 27.2% between 15 and 29, 22.5% between 30 and 44, 15.4% between 45 and 59 and 10.6% above 60.^[52]

Pueblos jóvenes on the outskirts of Lima in 2015. Today, many of them are consolidated.

Migration to Lima from the rest of Peru is substantial. In 2013, 3,480,000 people reported arriving from other regions. This represents almost 36% of the entire population of Metropolitan Lima. The three regions that supply most of the migrants are Junin, Ancash and Ayacucho. By contrast only 390,000 emigrated from Lima to other regions.^[52]

The annual population growth rate is 1.57%. Some of the 43 metropolitan districts are considerably more populous than others. For example, San Juan de Lurigancho, San Martin de Porres, Ate, Comas, Villa El Salvador and Villa Maria del Triunfo host more than 400,000, while San Luis, San Isidro, Magdalena del Mar, Lince and Barranco have less than 60,000 residents.^[52]

A 2005 household survey study shows a socio-economic distribution for households in Lima. It used a monthly family income of 6,000 soles (around US$1,840) or more for socioeconomic level A; between 2,000 soles (US$612) and 6,000 soles (US$1,840) for level B; from 840 soles (US$257) to 2,000 soles (US$612) for level C; from 420 soles (US$128) to 1200 soles (US$368) for level D; and up to 840 soles (US$257) for level E. In Lima, 18% were in level E; 32.3% in level D; 31.7% in level C; 14.6% in level B; and 3.4% in level A. In this sense, 82% of the population lives in households that earn less than 2000 soles (or US$612) monthly. Other salient differences between socioeconomic levels include levels of higher education, car ownership and home size.^[78]

In Metropolitan Lima in 2013, the percentage of the population living in households in poverty was 12.8%. The level of poverty is measured by households that are unable to access a basic food and other household goods and services, such as clothing, housing, education, transportation and health. The level of poverty has decreased from 2011 (15.6%) and 2012 (14.5%). Lima Sur is the area in Lima with the highest proportion of poverty (17.7%), followed by Lima Este (14.5%), Lima Norte (14.1%) and Lima Centro (6.2%). In addition 0.2% of the population lives in extreme poverty, meaning that they are unable to access a basic food basket.^[52]

Overview of Costa Verde and the Pacific Ocean, Miraflores district

Economy

Financial center of San Isidro

The Lima Stock Exchange building

Lima is the country's industrial and financial center and one of Latin America's most important financial centers,^[79] home to many national companies and hotels. It accounts for more than two-thirds of Peru's industrial production^[80] and most of its tertiary sector.

The metropolitan area, with around 7,000 factories,^[81] is the main location of industry. Products include textiles, clothing and food. Chemicals, fish, leather and oil derivatives are manufactured and processed.^[81] The financial district is in San Isidro, while much of the industrial activity takes place in the west of the city, extending to the airport in Callao. Lima has the largest export industry in South America and is a regional center for the cargo industry. Industrialization began in the 1930s and by 1950, through import substitution policies, manufacturing made up 14% of GNP. In the late 1950s, up to 70% of consumer goods were manufactured in factories located in Lima.^[82] The Callao seaport is one of the main fishing and commerce ports in South America, covering over 47 hectares (120 acres) and shipping 20.7 million metric tons of cargo in 2007.^[83] The main export goods are commodities: oil, steel, silver, zinc, cotton, sugar and coffee.

As of 2003^[update], Lima generated 53% of GDP.^[84] Most foreign companies in Peru settled in Lima.

In 2007, the Peruvian economy grew 9%, the largest growth rate in South America.^[85] The Lima Stock Exchange rose 185.24% in 2006^[86] and in 2007 by another 168.3%,^[87] making it then one of the fastest growing stock exchanges in the world. In 2006, the Lima Stock Exchange was the world's most profitable.^[88]

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Summit 2008 and the Latin America, the Caribbean and the European Union Summit were held there.

Lima is the headquarters for banks such as Banco de Crédito del Perú, Scotiabank Perú, Interbank, Bank of the Nation, Banco Continental, MiBanco, Banco Interamericano de Finanzas, Banco Financiero, Banco de Comercio and CrediScotia. It is a regional headquarters for Standard Chartered. Insurance companies based in Lima include Rimac Seguros, Mapfre Peru, Interseguro, Pacifico, Protecta and La Positiva.^[89]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Lima

360° panoramic view of the Plaza Mayor

As the main entry point to the country, Lima has developed an important tourism industry, among which its Historic Center, its archaeological centers, its nightlife, museums, art galleries, festivities and popular traditions stand out. According to Mastercard's Global Destination Cities Index, in 2014, Lima was the most visited city of Latin America and was the 20th city globally, with 5.11 million visitors.^[90] In 2019,^[91] Lima is the top destination in South America, with 2.63 million international visitors in 2018 and a growth forecast of 10.00% percent for 2019.

The Catacombs of the Basilica of San Francisco was the Old cemetery of the city during all the colonial times, until 1810. It contain bones of some 70,000 colonial people.^[92]

The Historic Centre of Lima, which includes part of the districts of Lima and Rímac, was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988 due to the importance that the city had during the Viceroyalty of Peru, leaving as testimony a large number of architectural legacies.^[93] Highlights include the Basilica and Convent of San Francisco, the Plaza Mayor, the Cathedral, the Basilica and Convent of Santo Domingo, the Palacio de Torre Tagle, among others. The tour of the churches of the city is very popular among tourists. In a short walk through the city center we can find many, several of which date from the 16th and 17th centuries.

Basilica of Santo Dom