Maniots

The Maniots (/ˈmæniəts/) or Maniates (Greek: Μανιάτες) is the traditional name for the native Greek inhabitants of the Mani Peninsula in the southern Peloponnese region of Greece. They have historically been known as Mainotes, and the peninsula as Maina.

Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis, Greek revolutionary during the War of Independence (1821–1829) and native Maniot

The origin of the name "Mani" is uncertain—it may have meant "dry" or "barren".^{[citation needed]} In the early modern period Maniots gained a reputation as fierce and proudly independent warriors, who engaged in piracy and blood feuds. They lived mainly in fortified villages and "house-towers" built as defenses against "Frankish" (see Frankokratia) and Ottoman invaders.

The Maniots claim to be descendants of the ancient Spartans and heirs to their militaristic culture. Modern observers noted Maniots' self-identification as warriors ready to "preserve their liberty" with arms.^[1][2]

Ancient Mani

Mycenaean Mani

Map showing the location of Mani Peninsula

The "Catalogue of Ships" in the Iliad names cities of Mani: Messi (Mezapos), Oetylus (Oitylo), Kardamili (Skardamoula), Gerenia, Teuthrone (Kotronas), and Las (Passavas).^[3] Mani flourished under the Mycenaeans, and a temple dedicated to Apollo was built at Cape Tainaron. The region featured in many myths and legends.

Phoenicians in the early Iron Age arrived in Mani and are thought to have established a colony at Gythion (modern Gytheio, called Gythium by the Romans). The colony collected the murex sea snail which was plentiful in the Laconian Gulf and processed into Tyrian purple, a valuable dye.^[4]

Classical Mani

Map of Modern Mani

Under Spartan rule, inhabitants of Mani were classified as belonging to the Perioeci social caste.^[5]

Tenaron became an important center for mercenary traffic,^[6] and Gythium—27 km (17 mi) away from the city of Sparta—became its major port. In 455 BC, during the First Peloponnesian War with Athens, it was besieged and captured by a force of 50 triremes commanded by admiral Tolmides with 4,000 hoplites.^[4] The damaged city and docks were rebuilt and by the end of the Peloponnesian War, Gythium was the main shipyard for the new Spartan fleet.^[7] Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese lasted until 371 BC, when the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated Sparta at Leuctra. The Thebans began a campaign against Laconia and captured Gythium after a three-day siege by a force of 100 elite warriors posing as athletes. The Thebans only briefly managed to hold Gythium.^[6]

Hellenistic Mani

Ancient theatre near Gytheio

During the Hellenistic period of Greece, Mani remained controlled by the Spartans. The Macedonians under the command of Philip V of Macedon tried to invade Mani and the rest of Laconia (219–218 BC) and besieged the cities of Gythium, Las and Asine without result.^[6] Once Nabis of Sparta took the throne in 207 BC, he expanded Gythium as a major port and naval arsenal.^[8] In 195 BC, during the Roman–Spartan War, forces of the Roman Republic and Achaean League with auxiliaries from Pergamon and Rhodes captured Gythium after a lengthy siege.

The allies went on to besiege Sparta. A peace treaty ensued; as part of the agreement, the coastal cities of Mani became autonomous. These cities formed the Koinon of Free Laconians, with Gythium as the capital under the Achaean League's protection.^[6] Nabis, determined to retake the cities he was forced to relinquish, re-armed in 192 BC advanced upon Gythium.^[9] The Achaean League's army and navy under Philopoemen, tried to relieve the city but the Achaean navy was defeated off Gythium and the army was forced to retreat to Tegea.^[9] A Roman fleet under Atilius managed to re-capture Gythium later that year. Nabis was murdered later that year and Sparta was made part of the Achaean League.^[10] However, the Spartans, while searching for a port captured Las. The Achaeans responded by seizing Sparta and unsuccessfully forcing their laws on it.^[11]

Roman Mani

In 146 BC the Achaean League rebelled against Roman dominance, resulting in its annexation by the by the Roman Republic.

Mani became a center for purple dye, which was popular in Rome, as well as being well known for its rose antique marble and porphyry.^[4] Las is recorded to have been a comfortable city with Roman baths and a gymnasium.^[12]

Pausanias described Gythium during the time of Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 CE).

The Koinon remained semi-independent (autonomous under Roman sovereignty) until the provincial reforms of Roman Emperor Diocletian in 297. With the barbarian invasion affecting the Roman Empire, Mani became a haven for refugees. In 375, a massive earthquake in the area took its toll on Gythium, which was severely devastated.^[13][12] Most of the ruins of ancient Gythium are now submerged in the Laconian Gulf.

Medieval Mani

From Theodosius I to the Avar invasion

A map of the Byzantine Empire c. 717

On January 17, 395, Theodosius I, who had managed to unite the Roman Empire under his control, died. His eldest son, Arcadius, succeeded him in the Eastern Roman Empire, while his younger son, Honorius, received the Western Roman Empire. The Roman Empire had divided for the last time, and Mani became part of the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. Between 395 and 397, Alaric I and his Visigoths plundered the Peloponnese and destroyed what was left of Gythium. Alaric captured the most famous cities, Corinth, Argos, and Sparta. He was at last defeated by Stilicho and then crossed the Gulf of Corinth towards the north.^[13]

In 468, Gaiseric and the Vandals attacked Mani, hoping to use it as a base from which to conquer the whole Peloponnese. As Gaiseric's fleet tried to land at Kenipolis near Cape Matapan, the townspeople attacked. The Maniots inflicted heavy casualites on the Vandals, and Gaiseric was forced to retreat.^[14]

According to Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos, the Eurasian Avars (along with the Slavs) attacked and occupied most of the western Peloponnese in 590.^[15] However, there is no archaeological evidence for a Slavic (or Avar) penetration of imperial Byzantine territory before the end of the 6th century. Overall, traces of Slavic culture in Greece are very rare.^[16]

During the Macedonian dynasty

A characteristic door with the symbol of the double-headed eagle in Gytheio

There is a description of Mani and its inhabitants in Constantine VII's De Administrando Imperio:^[15]

Be it known that the inhabitants of Castle Maina are not from the race of aforesaid Slavs (Melingoi and Ezeritai dwelling on the Taygetus) but from the older Romaioi, who up to the present time are termed Hellenes by the local inhabitants on account of their being in olden times idolatres and worshippers of idols like the ancient Greeks, and who were baptized and became Christians in the reign of the glorious Basil. The place in which they live is waterless and inaccessible, but has olives from which they gain some consolation.

The area inhabited by the Maniates (or Maniots) was first called by the name 'Maina' and was associated probably with the castle of Tigani (situated in the small peninsula of Tigani in Mezapos bay in northwestern Mani Peninsula). The Maniots at that time were called 'Hellenes'—that is, pagans (see Names of the Greeks)—and were only Christianized fully in the 9th century AD, though some church ruins from the 4th century AD indicate that Christianity was practiced by some Maniots in the region at an earlier time. The Maniots were the last inhabitants of Greece to openly follow the pagan Hellenic religion. This can be explained by the mountainous nature of Mani's terrain, which enabled them to escape the attempts of the Eastern Roman Empire to Christianize Greece.^[15]

Under the Principality of Achaea

Coat of Arms of the Principality of Achaea

During the Fourth Crusade (1201–1204), the Crusaders captured Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire was partitioned between several Greek and Latin successor states, notably including (from west to east) the Despotate of Epirus, the Latin Empire, the Empire of Nicaea, and the Empire of Trebizond. These four empires produced rival emperors, struggling for control over each other and the rest of the semi-independent states emerging in the area. William of Champlitte and Geoffrey I Villehardouin defeated the Peloponnesian Greeks at the Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros (1205), and the Peloponnese became the Principality of Achaea. In 1210, Mani was given to Baron Jean de Neuilly as Hereditary Marshal, and he built the castle of Passavas on the ruins of Las. The castle occupied a significant position, as it controlled an important pass from Gythium to Oitylo and contained the Maniots.^[17]

The Maniots were not the only threat to the Frankish occupation of the Peloponnese. The Melengi, a Slavic tribe in the Taygetus mountain range, raided Laconia from the west, and the Tsakonians also resisted the Franks. In 1249, the new prince, William II of Villehardouin, acted against the raiders. He used the newly captured fortress of Monemvasia to keep the Tsakonians at bay, and he built the castle at Mystras in the Taygetus mountains overlooking Sparta in order to contain the Melengi. To stop the Maniot raids, he built the castle of Megali Maina, which is most probably Tigani. It is described as at a fearful cliff with a headland above. A Latin bishop was appointed for Mani during the 1250s. In 1259, the bishop was captured during the Battle of Pelagonia by the renewed Byzantine Empire under the leadership of Nicaea.^[18]

Under the Despotate of Morea

Despotate of Morea, c. 1450

On July 25, 1261, the Byzantines under Michael VIII Palaiologos recaptured Constantinople. Prince William was set free, on the condition that he had to surrender the fortresses of Megali Maina, Mystras, Geronthrae and Monemvasia, as well as surrender hostages including Lady Margaret, Baroness of Passavas. With the Franks gone from Laconia, the Maniots lived in peace under the Despotate of Morea, whose successive Despotes governed the province. Mani seems to have been dominated by the Nikliani family, who were refugees. However, the peace was terminated when the Ottoman Turks started their attacks on the Peloponnese.^[18]

Ottoman times

15th century

After the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Mehmed II took Constantinople in May 1453, Mani remained under the control of the Despotate of Morea. In May 1460, Mehmed occupied the Peloponnese. The Despotate of Morea had been ruled by the two brothers of Constantine XI, who had died defending Constantinople. However, neither Demetrios Palaiologos nor Thomas Palaiologos chose to follow his example and defend the Peloponnese. Instead, Thomas fled to Italy, while Demetrios sought refuge with Mehmed. Helena Palaiologina, a daughter of Demetrios and his second wife Theodora Asanina, was given in marriage to Mehmed II.^[18]

A map of the Ottoman Empire

Krokodeilos Kladas, a Greek from Laconia, was granted lordship by Mehmed over Elos and Vardounia in 1461. Mehmed hoped that Kladas would defend Laconia from the Maniots.^[18] Around that time, towns like Skoutari were founded by people who had escaped from Constantinople.^[19] In 1463, Kladas joined the Venetians in their ongoing war against the Ottomans. He led the Maniots against the Ottomans with Venetian aid until 1479, when the Venetians made peace with the Ottomans and gave the Ottomans the right to rule the Brazzo di Maina. Kladas refused to accept the conditions, and so the Venetians put a price on his head.^[18]

A month later, a larger force under the command of Ahmed Bey invaded Mani and drove Kladas to Porto Kagio.^[20] There, he was picked up by three galleys of King Ferdinand I of Naples.^[20] To delay the Turks long enough for Kladas to escape, the Maniot rear guard attacked the Turkish army.^[20] Kladas reached the Kingdom of Naples, where he became a mercenary leader. He returned to Mani in 1490 and was killed in a battle at Monemvasia.^[20]

16th century

The Ottomans under Selim II, preparing to invade the Venetian island of Cyprus, built a fortress in Mani, at Porto Kagio, and they also garrisoned Passavas. The aim of this was to disrupt the Venetians' communication lines and to keep the Maniots at bay. Alarmed, the Maniots called upon Venetian assistance, and the Venetian navy in combination with the Maniot army captured the castle.^[21]

Cyprus fell later that year, but the fleet of the Holy League defeated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). The Greeks assumed that John of Austria would champion their revolt under the command of the bishop of Monemvasia.^[21] The promised army never arrived, and by 1572 the bishop was forced to retreat to Mani. The Maniots did not succeed when they appealed to Pope Gregory VIII to convince Philip II of Spain to provide military support.^[22]

17th century

Vatheia, a typical Maniot village famous for its towers

In 1603, the Maniots approached Pope Clement VIII, who had recently taken up the cross. Clement died two years later, and the Maniots began to seek a new champion, centering their attention on the King of Spain, Philip III.^[22] The Maniots also sent envoys to some major powers of the Mediterranean, as for example the Republic of Venice, the Kingdom of France, the Republic of Genoa, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and once again Spain. These states were interested and sent several expeditionary forces to Mani, but with the exception of a Spanish expedition that sacked Passavas, they all failed to achieve anything.^[22]

In 1612, Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Nevers, claimed the throne of Constantinople. He began plotting with the Maniots, who addressed him as "King Constantine Palaiologos". When the Porte heard about this, they sent Arslan in command of an army of 20,000 men and 70 ships to invade Mani. He succeeded in ravaging Mani and imposing taxes on the Maniots (which they did not pay). This caused Nevers to move more actively for his crusade. Nevers sent envoys to the courts of Europe looking for support. In 1619, he recruited six ships and a number of men, but he was forced to abort the mission because of the beginning of the Thirty Years' War.^[22]

In 1645, a new Turkish-Venetian War, the so-called "Cretan War" began, during which the Republic of Venice was attempting to defend Crete, one of their provinces since 1204, from the Ottoman Empire, initially under Ibrahim I. The Maniots supported the Venetians by offering them ships. In 1659, Admiral Francesco Morosini, with 13,000 Maniots as his allies, occupied Kalamata, a large city near Mani. In 1667, during the Siege of Candia, some Maniot pirate ships sneaked into the Ottoman fleet and managed to loot and burn some ships. However, Candia fell in 1669, and Crete became part of the Ottoman Empire.^[22]{{refn|group=Note|name=cnoteγ|As a result of the many revolts against the Ottoman Empire, the Maniots welcomed new Greek refugees from various areas including Asia Minor, and especially Crete when the Turks acquired the island from the Venetians in 1669. The Cretan refugees settled in Mani and created villages with Cretan names that enriched the Maniot dialect with Cretan words and idioms.^[23]

Maniot piracy was observed by Evliya Çelebi, who visited Mani with the Ottoman expedition and recorded numerous villages, castles and churches; he described the Maniots with the following words: "They capture the Frank and sell him to us, they capture us and sell us to the Franks."^[24]

A street of Cargèse in Corsica, which was founded by Maniot refugees, with its Greek Catholic church in the background

Around 700 members of the Stephanopoulos clan migrated to Corsica, as well as the Latriani, (whose Latinized name happened to be Medici) who went to live in Tuscany after gaining Ferdinand Medici's permission.^[25]

The Bey of Mani, Limberakis Gerakaris, soon fell out of favor with the Turks since he joined his fellow Maniots in piracy and was captured in 1682.^[25] With Ottoman forces preoccupied with the Austrians, the Venetians under Morosini saw their opportunity to take over Turkish-held territories in the Peloponnese, beginning the Morean War.</ref>^[26]

Limberakis immediately launched several raids into Venetian-held territories of the Peloponnese. However, when the Ottomans attempted to poison Limberakis, he defected to the Venetian side.^[27]

18th century

In 1715, the Ottomans attacked the Peloponnese and expelled the Venetians.

Orlov Revolt

Main article: Orlov Revolt

A Russian fleet of five ships and 500 soldiers under the command of Aleksey Grigoryevich Orlov sailed from the Baltic Sea in 1769 and reached Mani in 1770.^[27]

The Russians left and conducted their own operations until the end of the year, when they ultimately sailed back to Russia.^[27]

Ottoman invasion of Mani (1770)

Main article: Ottoman invasion of Mani (1770)

Around 1770, the Ottoman commander Hasan Ghazi with 16,000 men besieged the two fighting towers (pyrgoi) of Venetsanakis clan in Kastania. The defenders were Constantine Kolokotronis and Panagiotis Venetsanakis with 150 men and women. The fight lasted for twelve days: most of the defenders were killed, and all prisoners of war were tortured and dismembered. The wife of Constantine Kolokotronis was dressed like a warrior and fought her way out carrying her baby, Theodoros Kolokotronis, the future commander of the Greek War of Independence.^[28]

In 1780, Hasan Ghazi, the Bey of the Peloponnese, tried to weaken the leading Maniot Grigorakis family by arranging the assassination of Exarchos Grigorakis. He invited him to Tripolitsa and treated him as an honored guest but then had him hanged.^[29] On Easter Sunday, Exarchos' mother incited the men of Skoutari to take revenge for the death of her son.^[30] Commanded by Zanetos Grigorakis, the men of Skoutari dressed as priests and were allowed into Passavas. Once inside, the Skoutariotes took out their concealed weapons and killed all the Turkish inhabitants of Passavas.^[31]

In 1782, the Ottomans lured Michalis Troupakis, Bey of Mani, onto a ship and sent him to Lesbos, where he was executed for piracy. The Porte tried to get Zanetos Grigorakis to replace him, but Zanetos refused until he was lured onto a ship and forced to become bey.^[32]

Soon after the Orlov Expedition, a number of Maniots entered Russian military service. Remnants of the two legions joined Russian sea forces as marines, participating in operations in the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean. Two leaders of these volunteers, Stephanos Mavromichalis and Dimitrios Grigorakis, were scions of the main Maniot clans, each rising to the rank of major.^{[citation needed]}

Lambros Katsonis

Lambros Katsonis

During Zanetos' rule, Mani became a base for many klephts and other Greek bandits.^{[citation needed]} On January 9, 1792, Catherine II of Russia had her representative Alexander Bezborodko sign the Treaty of Jassy with Grand Vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ended the Russo-Turkish War, recognized Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate, and transferred Yedisan to Russia, making the Dniester the Russo-Turkish frontier in Europe while leaving the Asiatic frontier (Kuban River) unchanged.^[33]

Katsonis, together with Androutsos and Barbitsiotis, built a gun battery at Porto Kagio. He gathered a small army and a navy of eleven ships and attacked Ottoman ships in the area. However, not being able to maintain his ships, he started attacking ships from other countries. Later that year, he sank two French ships, which was the beginning of the end for Katsonis. An Ottoman fleet of thirty ships and a French destroyer attacked Katsonis at Porto Kagio. Katsonis' men fled to land; Katsonis himself escaped to Odessa on one of the ships.^[33]

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte, at the time a general serving in the French Revolutionary Wars under the orders of the French Directory, sent two members of the Stephanopoulos family to Mani in order to convince the Maniots to attack the Ottomans from the Peloponnese while he attacked from Egypt. Zacharias Barbitsiotis and Zanetbey (Zanetos Grigorakis) accepted the offer, and Napoleon sent them weapons. When the Turks discovered this, they had^[how?] Zanetos replaced as bey with Panagiotis Koumoundouros.^[32]

Modern Mani

Early 19th century and the beginning of the Greek War of Independence

During the Ottoman invasion of Mani in 1803, the Ottomans deposed Panagiotis Koumoundouros, because he was not capable of subduing Zanetos Grigorakis, who was still receiving weapons from the French at his castle in Cranae. The Ottomans replaced him with Antony Grigorakis, cousin of Zanetos.^[32] The Turkish fleet was unable to capture Cranae and soon forced to retreat.^[32]

Limeni, port of Areopoli, stronghold of the Mavromichalis clan

In 1807, the Ottomans attacked Antonbey at Gytheio, because he was unwilling to suppress his cousin, who was still attacking the Turks. The Turks were once again forced to retreat. Three years later, Grigorakis resigned in favor of his son-in-law, Konstantis Zervakos, who was favorable to the bey of the Peloponnese. However, the Maniots did not agree with the choice and deposed Zervakos.^[34]

Later that year, the Maniot leaders gathered at Gytheio and elected Theodoros Zanerakos or Theodorobey, nephew of Zanetos Grigorakis, as a leader of Mani. During 1815, the Ottomans attacked Mani but were driven back.^[35] Theodorobey was removed from power later that year and was replaced by Petros Mavromichalis or Petrobey.^[34]

Petros Mavromichalis was John the Dog's nephew. He was the first Maniot bey from Mesa Mani (Inner Mani).^[34] In 1798, he had also been approached by Napoleon to join the war on the Ottomans, but after the failure of the French invasion of Egypt, Petros joined the French army only for a while and fought in the Ionian Islands. It was rumored at the time that he was appointed bey only because his uncle was not killed, had converted to Islam, and had become an officer in the Ottoman army. In 1819, he joined the Filiki Eteria, which by 1821 was prepared to revolt.^[36]

"Declaration of War" and Contributions to the Greek Revolution

Maniot flag with the motto Νίκη ή Θάνατος 'Victory or Death'

Maniots, known for their martial traditions, were the very first to join the Greek liberation movement (a claim shared with many other Greek areas) and their contribution proved to be pivotal. The society called the Filiki Eteria sent their representatives Perrevos and Chrisospathis to organize the Maniots.^{[37][broken footnote]} On March 17, 1821, 12,000 Maniots gathered in the church of the Taxiarchs (Archangels) of the town of Areopoli and declared war against the Ottoman Empire, preceding the rest of Greece by about a week.^[38]

Nikolaos Pierrakos Mavromichalis

From Kalamata, Mavromichalis wrote letters to the states of Europe, informing them of what the Greeks were doing and signing them as "Commander in Chief of the Spartan Forces". The Messenian Senate was also held in Kalamata. Kolokotronis wanted to attack Tripolitsa and capture the main Turkish city in the Peloponnese. However, Mavromichalis wanted to capture the smaller towns first and then take Tripolitsa. The Senate agreed with Mavromichalis, and the Maniots attacked the Turks of Messenia and Laconia.^{[39][broken footnote]}

On April 28, a few thousand Maniot soldiers under the command of Petros Mavromichalis' sons joined Kolokotronis' camp outside Tripolitsa. On September 12, 1821, the Turkish capital in the Peloponnese fell. On July 4, 1822, Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis, Petros Mavromichalis' younger brother, was killed in Splantza, near the Souliote fortress of Kiafa.

Mahmud II became desperate and during 1824 called on his Viceroy, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, to aid him to attack Mani. Ali promised to aid him in return for the islands of Crete and Cyprus, as well as making his eldest son, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, pasha of the Peloponnese. Mahmud II accepted the offer and Ali sent his son in command of the expedition. Meanwhile, the Greeks were in disarray because of political rivalries, which caused a civil war. Kolokotronis was arrested, his son Panos was killed, and his nephew Nikitaras fled.^{[40][broken footnote]}

Konstantinos Mavromichalis

Ibrahim made good use of this turmoil and landed with his army (25-30,000 infantry, cavalry and artillery supported by the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet) at Methoni. Ibrahim soon had recaptured the Peloponnese except for Nafplio and Mani. When he tried to capture Nafplio, he was repelled by Dimitrios Ypsilantis and Konstantinos Mavromichalis, Petros' brother.^{[41][broken footnote]}

He was stopped at the walls of Almiros and Verga, which ran for around 500 meters.^[42] Defending the walls were 2,000 Maniots under the command of Ilias Mavromichalis (Katsakos) and 500 Greek refugees.^[43][44] The fighting continued for a few more days before the Egyptians retreated when rumors that Kolokotronis was approaching their rear with 2,000 men proved true.^[45]

Ilias Mavromichalis

While Ibrahim was beginning his attack on the Maniot position at Verga, he decided to launch a small fleet and attack Areopoli. This plan was described by Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos as "excellent" because it would catch Areopoli by surprise since it was ill defended. By capturing Areopoli, Ibrahim could disrupt the Maniot communication lines and control the mountain passes that led to Gytheio. This would also allow the Egyptians to attack the Maniots at Verga from the rear.^[44]

On June 24, Ibrahim sent a small fleet carrying 1,500 troops to land at the Bay of Diros and capture Areopoli.^[44] 300 Maniots arrived from other towns, and the Egyptians were forced to either swim to their ships or be slain.^[44] Not only was Ibrahim's defeat costly, as he lost 1,000 men, but his plan to invade and conquer Mani was utterly ruined. Later on, the women of Diros were dubbed the 'Amazons of Diros'.^[46]

The Egyptians had trouble advancing to Polytsaravos, because it was surrounded by rocks situated on high ground.^[47]

Republic and Regency

The imprisonment of Petros Mavromichalis (left) by Ioannis Kapodistrias (right) led to the assassination of Kapodistrias.

In 1831, Ioannis Kapodistrias became governor of Greece. Kapodistrias quarreled with the Mavromichalis clan because the Maniots refused to pay taxes to the new government.^{[48][broken footnote]} Kapodistrias requested that Tzanis, Petros' brother, go to Nafplio, then capital of Greece, and negotiate. As soon as Tzanis arrived, he was arrested and imprisoned. Kapodistrias then sent soldiers to Mani and had Petros arrested, imprisoned, and charged with high treason. His brother Konstantinos, the defender of Nafplio, and Petros' son, Georgios Mavromichalis, were put under house arrest in the capital.^{[49][broken footnote]}

On September 27, 1831 (October 9 in the Gregorian calendar), Kapodistrias went to attend a church service at the Church of Saint Spyridon. He noticed that Konstantinos and Georgios were waiting at the church doors. As he passed them, he briefly stopped before proceeding into the church. As he was about to step into the church, Konstantinos used his gun and the bullet hit Kapodistrias at the back of the head while at the same time Georgios stabbed him through the heart. Kapodistrias collapsed into the arms of his attendants. Kapodistrias' bodyguard shot Konstantinos as he was running, and Konstantinos was hit by several more bullets before he died. Kostantinos' body was then dragged by an angry mob, who threw it into the sea. Georgios was captured and executed on the island of Bourzi, off the coast of Nafplio, while his father watched.^[49]

In 1833, Otto von Wittelsbach, a son of Ludwig I of Bavaria and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen, became King of Greece after he was appointed by the Great Powers. Since he was underage, he had a Council of Regency headed by Josef Ludwig von Armansperg governing the country for him.^[38] One of the Council's first acts was to try to subdue the unruly Maniots and pull down their towers; another was to free Petros and Tzanis from their prisons.^[50]

Late 19th century

Alexandros Koumoundouros (1817–1883), born in the Messenian side of Mani, was a political personality famous for his work towards national progress.

In 1870 a Maniot vendetta was halted by the efforts of a regular army with artillery support.^[51]

20th century

View of the promenade of Gytheio, the largest town of Mani

At the start of the 20th century, Greece was involved with the Macedonian Struggle, military conflicts against the Bulgarian organization known as the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, and Turkish forces in Ottoman-occupied Macedonia.

During World War II, the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom defeated the Regia Marina of Italy in the Battle of Cape Matapan (27 March – 29 March 1941) on Cape Tainaron. However, Nazi Germany attacked Greece in order to support the Italians. The Greeks were forced to retreat, and Mani became a destination for refugees. During April 1941, the British started evacuating their troops from Porto Kagio. By the end of the month, Italian and German troops had occupied Greece.^[52]

During the Axis occupation of Greece, Mani became a stronghold for the Security Battalions, the Greek collaborationist paramilitary groups formed to support the German and Italian occupation troops. The Greek Civil War began in 1944, at the end of the occupation.^[53] Mani was devastated by the wars, and many of its young people left for Athens, the United States, and Australia.^[54]

Mani is divided between two regional units: Laconia and Messenia. It has around 18,000 inhabitants, with the most important and populous town being Gytheio. Mani's main source of income is tourism. The most famous of the tourist attractions are the Caves of Diros, which are two caves that have underwater rivers flowing through them.

Maniot variety of Modern Greek

A map showing the distribution of Maniot Greek

Maniots have historically spoken one of the varieties of Modern Greek, defined as either a dialect or an idiom.^[55]

One of the Maniot variety's properties—shared with Tsakonian and with dialects spoken around Athens until the 19th century—is the divergent treatment of historical /y/ (written <υ>). Although this sound merged to /i/ everywhere else, these dialects have /u/ instead (e.g. [ˈksulo] versus standard [ˈksilo] 'wood').^[56]

These varieties are thought to be relic areas of a previously larger areal dialect group that used to share these features, and was later divided by the penetration of Arvanitika in much of its area, in the late Middle Ages.^{[citation needed]}

Other features of the Maniot dialect include the palatalization of velar consonants, i.e. the realization of /k, ɡ, x, ɣ/ as ([tɕ, dʑ] or [ɕ, ʑ] before /i, e, j/. This feature is shared with many southern dialects of Greek; especially Cretan.^{[citation needed]}

In Outer Mani, family names end in "-eas", while surnames of Inner Mani end in "-akis", "-akos", or—less frequently—"-oggonas".^[57]

Economy

There is little information on the economy of Mani during the early stages of Ottoman dominance of Greece, and what is known of the economy in the 17th and 18th centuries is from foreign observers. In Exo Mani ('outer Mani'), olives were grown in great numbers but it was not until the 18th century that olives were widely spread in Mesa Mani ('inner Mani'). Exports from Exo Mani also included pine for masts as well as turpentine, hides as well as a tanning agent and prinokoki, a crimson-colored dye. The north-west parts of Mesa Mani were rich in mulberries and silk. Honey is also of superior quality. Another important part of the Maniot economy was piracy. Nowadays the main industries in Mani are agriculture and tourism.^[58]

Culture

Woman from Mani

Clans

Maniot society is traditionally clan-based.

Arts

Two dances come from Mani: Palio Maniatiko (Παλιό Μανιάτικο, lit. 'Old Maniot') and the Modern Maniatiko. The Palio Maniatiko is only found in Mani and is described as an ancient dance.^[59] The Modern Maniatiko is the modern version of the Palio Maniatiko dance and includes certain aspects of the Kalamatiano dance in it. Like the Palio Maniatiko, it is only performed in Mani.^[59]

Piracy

"If any ship come to anchor on their coast, many arm themselves and go to the place, over against where the ship doth ride; some of them will be in priests habits, walking by the sea side, with their wallets, in which they will have some wine and bread. Their companions lye hid behind the bushes at some convenient post. When any strangers come ashore, who do not understand their language, the feigned priests make signes to them, shewing them their bread and wine, which they offer to them for money, by which the strangers being enticed from the sea side (and it may be to sit down and taste their wine) the hidden Manjotts come and make their prey. The priests will seem to be sorry, and endeavor to make the strangers to believe they were altogether ignorant of any such design. So a white flagg is put out, and a treaty held with the ship for their ransome. The priests endeavor to moderate the price, shewing a great deal of respect to their companions, who are clothed in Turkish habits. Many ships have been thus served."

Bernard Randolph, Present State of the Morea.[60]

Historically, Maniots were notorious pirates. Piracy was their main source of income into at least the 18th century.^[61] Local Eastern Orthodox Church priests blessed the raiding ships before departure; sometimes priests joined the pirate crews. Most of the Maniot pirates came from Mesa Mani (Μέσα Μάνη, 'Inner Mani').^[62]

Folklore

There is a strong history of superstition and folklore in Maniot culture; most common stories revolve around witches, demons, vampires, and ghosts. When Henry Herbert, 3rd Earl of Carnarvon, was touring Mani in 1839, he found a fresh egg by the side of the road and offered it to a Maniot soldier who escorted him, who declined the offer explaining that if a hag had enchanted it he would have to marry her. The Maniots thought that certain areas were haunted by demons.^[63]

Vendettas

Another important aspect of Maniot culture were the vendettas which frequently plagued Mani. Usually, the decision to start a vendetta was made at a family gathering. The main aim of a vendetta was usually to wipe out the other family. The families involved locked themselves in their towers and whenever they got the chance murdered members of the opposing family. The other families in the village normally locked themselves in their towers in order not to get in the way of the fighting.^[64]

Vendettas could go on for months, sometimes years, and usually ended when one family was exterminated or left the town. In some cases (like the killing of a murderer) vendettas would be concluded after the 'guilty' individual(s) were killed. In other cases vendettas, particularly long-running ones, were ended in a peaceful to terms or exchange of property. In the case of long vendettas, families often agreed upon a temporary treva (τρέβα, 'truce') in order to allow for harvests or the attendance of religious ceremonies; when the treva ended, the killing could resume. A cornerstone of the Maniot's vendetta culture was the agreement that all vendettas immediately stop in a universal treva whenever the community faced a Turkish threat. The longest of all trevas was announced by the Mavromichalis clan when war was declared on the Ottoman Empire in March 1821, beginning the Greek War for Independence. Vendettas continued after Greece's independence. ^[64] The Maniot vendetta culture is considered one of the most vicious and ruthless of all the Mediterranean vendetta cultures. One of the last large scale vendettas on record required the Greek Police, 1,000 Greek Army soldiers, and 200 Greek Navy sailors to stop.^[65]

Cuisine

Local specialities:

• Hilopites
• Kolokythokorfades
• Paspalas
• Regali, lamb soup
• Tsouchtí, pasta with egg dish
• Syglino (pork meat, coldcut)
• Dakos
• Lalagides or Lalagia (Λαλαγγίδες)
• Diples (dessert)

Ethnology

Some inhabitants of Mani claim to be direct descendants of the ancient Spartans and are considered more "pure-blooded" Greeks. According to this tradition, after the Romans took over Laconia, many of the Spartan citizens who were loyal to the Spartan laws of Lycurgus decided to go to the Spartan mountains of Mani with the rest of the Spartans rather than be in Achaean or, later, Roman service.^[66]

Mani became a refuge during the 4th-century Migrations Period of Europe. When the Avars and Slavs entered the Peloponnese, Greek refugees fled into the mountainous terrain of Mani. According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the Maniots were not conquered by the Slavs and were descended from the ancient 'Romaioi'.^[15] The British historian David Armine Howarth states: "The only Greeks that have had an unbroken descent were the clans like the Maniotes who were so fierce, and lived so far up the mountain, that invaders left them alone."^[67]

Genetic studies

The paper "Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks" (2017), published in the European Journal of Human Genetics, showed that Maniot individuals share on average 0.25% of their genome (or 35–36 cM) identical by descent, with 95% of pairs of individuals sharing at least one IBD segment. The Maniots differ from all other Peloponnesians by PCA and ADMIXTURE analysis. They also differ from mainland, island and Asia Minor Greek populations who have been compared by PCA analysis, but they "partially" overlap with Sicilians and southern Italians. This can be explained by the fact that Maniots (along with Tsakonians) inherited the lowest amounts of Slavic autosomal ancestry throughout the Peloponnese, especially the ones from Deep Mani. Namely, in the case of Deep Mani or Mesa/Inner Mani (22 samples) it amounts to 0.7%–1.6%, while in the cases of Maniots from West Taygetos or Exo/Outer Mani (24 samples) to 4.9%–8.6% and of East Taygetos or Kato/Lower Mani (23 samples) to 5.7%–10.9% of common ancestry with Slavs (Belarusians, Russians, Polish, and Ukrainians) respectively. The Slavic ancestry possessed by the latter two is five to eight times higher than that of Deep Mani but lower to the ancestry the other Peloponnesians (148 samples - excluding the Tsakonians) share with the Slavs, which even though low, it's still relatively higher than Maniots (and Tsakonians) at 4.8%–14.4%. Even though Tsakonians, divided between Southerners (15 samples) and Northerners (9 samples) also possess low levels of common ancestry with the Slavs at 0.2%–0.9% and 3.9%–8.2% respectively, they remain a distinct population from both the Maniots and the rest of the Peloponnesians, something that is attributed to isolation by distance and the possibility that Tsakonia in antiquity was inhabited by Doric-speaking Ionians (per Herodotus), while similarly conservative Mani by actual Dorians.^[68]

Notable Maniots

• Stephen Antonakos, sculptor
• Panagiotis Doxaras, painter, founder of the Heptanese School
• Konstantinos Davakis, military officer
• Limberakis Gerakaris, pirate and first Bey of Mani
• Kyriakos D. Kassis artist
• Elias Koteas, actor
• Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis, hero of the Greek War of Independence
• Stylianos Mavromichalis, lawyer, president of the Areopagus and prime minister (1963)
• Demetrios Mavromichalis, politician, military officer, and aide to King Otto of Greece
• Kyriakoulis P. Mavromichalis, prime minister of Greece 1909–1910
• Petros Mavromichalis, hero of the Greek War of Independence, last Bey of Mani
• Michail Anagnostakos, military officer and army leader of the Macedonian Struggle
• George Tsimbidaros-Fteris, poet and journalist
• Tzannis Tzannetakis, naval officer, Member of the Hellenic Parliament, prime minister of Greece (1989) and Minister for Foreign Affairs

Notes