Pakawan languages

The Pakawan languages are a proposed small language family formerly spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas.

Pakawan
(disputed)
Geographic distribution	Rio Grande Valley
Linguistic classification	Hokan ? Coahuiltecan ? Pakawan
Subdivisions	Coahuilteco † Comecrudo † Cotoname † Garza † Mamulique †
Language codes
Glottolog	None

Classification

Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. This is followed by more modern scholars.^[1] The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).

The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".^[2]

Common vocabulary

The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):

Core Pakawan			Peripheral Pakawan		tentative reconstruction[2]
Coahuilteco[3]	Comecrudo[3]	Cotoname[3]	Karankawa[3]	Tónkawa[4]
axtē 'two'	ale-kueten 'two'		haíkia 'two'		#al-, #axte 'two'
''					#ali 'ear'
uxualʼ 'heaven'	apel 'sky, heaven, clouds'				#apel' 'sky'
apam 'water'		áx̣ 'water'	klai, komkom 'water'		#axə 'juice, water'
tciene 'salt'		dá-än	dem, ketac		#dem 'salt'
xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end'	kai 'to eat'		aknámas 'to eat'		#kai 'to eat up, consume'
axām 'not'	kam 'no'		kóṃ 'not'		#kam 'no(t)'
hām 'to eat'	kam 'to eat'	hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food'			#kam 'to eat, drink'
''					#kamkam 'body of water'
xasal 'heart'	kayasel 'heart'		láhama 'heart'		#kayasel 'heart'
	pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)'	xuăxe 'low (of water)'			#k(a)waka 'low (of water)'
	kemen 'vein'	kemma 'bow'			#keme(n) 'sinew, vein'
	pa=kna(x) 'high, big'	kenex 'good'			#kenex 'good, big'
''		ō' 'sun'	klos, dóowal 'sun'		#ketekawi 'sun, star'
talōm 'fire'	klewem, klewen, len	mánĕx 'fire'	kwátci, kwoilesem 'fire'		#klewem 'fire'
''		kĕnám	kanín		#knem 'breast'
kuas	kial	sä'x			#kual 'blood'
kuan 'to go'	kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come'	awóyo! 'go over there!'			#kuV- 'to go, come'
k’āu 'husband'	gnax, na 'man'	xuaináxe 'man'			#kwainaxə 'man'
''	kuak 'reed, cane; arrow'	ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow'			#kwak 'reed'
	pe=kla 'to suck'	huäxle 'to suck'			#kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck'
kʼāu 'to marry'	kuau, kwai 'married'				#k'aw 'to marry'
''	wax 'belly'	kox 'belly'			#k'wax 'belly'
tšum 'night, evening'	lesum, lesom 'evening'				#lesum 'evening'
''					#lel 'buttock, leg'
''		katówan			#lot 'arm'
''					#makə 'to give'
masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave'	mel, pa=mesai 'to fall'				#maɬ- 'to fall'
māux 'hand'	mapi 'hand'	miapa 'wing'			#mapi 'hand'
	pa=msol, pa=msul 'red'	msae 'red'			#msa'ol 'red'
	el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down'	pawe 'to sit'			#pawə 'to sit'
pilʼ 'one'	pe-kueten 'one'				#pil' 'one'
ānua 'moon'	kan 'moon'				#q'an 'moon'
saayēx 'to be wanting'					#sayex 'to want'
	sel 'straw'	suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke'			#sel 'grass'
	pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper'	thawe 'painted (on body, face)'			#tkawai 'paint'
tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what'	tete 'how, what, why'	*tit 'what'			#t'ete- 'what'
tʼil 'day'	al 'sun'	o 'sun'			#t'al 'sun'
	xop 'far, distant'	huanpa, xuanpa 'far'			#xwanpa 'far'
	''	yá-ĕx			#ya'ex 'nose'
yēwal 'to bewitch'	yamel, yamis 'devil'				#yameɬ 'evil spirit'
na- 'my, me'	na 'I'	na 'I'
mai- '2PS subject prefix'	emnã 'you (sg.)'	*men 'you (sg.)'
	pamawau
	la-ak 'goose'	krak 'goose'
	kol 'crane'	karakor 'crane'
	ketuau 'dog'	kowá-u 'dog'
	kiextuén 'rabbit'	kiáx̣nem 'rabbit'
	pa=kwessom 'orphan'	kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl'
malāux 'male sexual organs'	melkuai 'female sexual organs'
xūm 'to die'	kamau 'to kill'	wátxuka 'to kill'
tzin 'I'	yen 'I'
tzōtz 'chest'	yeso knem 'to nurse'
*tšei 'to hear'	ye 'to hear'
tilʼ 'posterior, anus'	alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom'
tām 'woman's breast'		dom 'breast'
mās 'to look, observe'	max, ma, mahe 'to see'
kuāx(ai) 'to suffer'	kayau 'ache, sore'

The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:

• Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
• Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
• Syncope of
• Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
• /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
• /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
• s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
• Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear

Lexical comparison

The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940).^[5] The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964),^[6] which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960).^[7] Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948),^[8] and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).^[9]

language	head	hair	eye	ear	nose	tooth	tongue	mouth	hand	foot	breast	meat	blood	bone	person	name
Comecrudo	eláx	eláx, emól	u-i	alí	yáx̣	í	expén	xál	mapí	emí, lemí	kném	ewé, kai	kiál	ehûei, klemí, xí	estók	lekaú
Cotoname	makuát	makuát	arókwan		yá-ĕx					ayésim	kĕnám	kemás	sä'x		xuaináxe
Karankawa	en-okea	ekia aikui	em-ikus		em-ai aluak	é, dolonakin	a-lean	emi-akwoi	étsma	eham, kékeya	kanín				ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe
Tonkawa	taˑkey	xʔaˑk	nemtan-xaˑ	henicxayʔan	yamʔacxan		ne̠ta̠le-	kala	nota-	naˑtan		ʔawas	ʔoˑn	ne̠kame-	tickan	hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)'
Coahuilteco									māux		tām	ahāuh	kuās, hātz		pīlam	aux
Solano												nikaog
Maratino												migtikui
Quinigua	kai
Naolan			mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my)									ma naːme; manáme (of deer)

language	dog	fish	louse	tree	leaf	flower	water	fire	stone	earth	salt	road	eat	die	I	you
Comecrudo	ketuaú, klám	atuís, selaú	ak 'blackish louse'	xaí	sel	awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí	áx̣	klewém, len	woyekuél	kamlá	sepén	ál	to, kai	kamaú, plau, pokuét	na, ye-inán, yén	nánã
Cotoname	kowá-u						áx̣	mánĕx		pén	dá-än		haháme	wátĕxo
Karankawa	kec	áṃ, kiles		akwiní			klai, komkom	húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem			dem, ketac		aknámas		náyi	áwa
Tonkawa	ʔekˑan	neswalʔan			xaˑsoy-tlc	nahen-	ʔaˑx	mʔelʔan	yatexan	haˑc	mamʔe-	naˑx	ya̠xa-	hewawa-	saˑ-	naˑ-ya
Coahuilteco								talōm		tāp			hām	xūm, tzam	na, tzin
Solano							apam				tciene		namō 'eat it'		na- (?)
Maratino													migtikui	paahtcu 'kill'
Quinigua	karama	ama, ami; ka		ana			ka, kwa, wa		pixa	ama			ama; ka(ene)
Naolan							mi; míː						mi koːl; ma koːl (my)		mi, ma (poss.)