Pseudepigrapha

A pseudepigraph (also anglicized as "pseudepigraphon") is a falsely attributed work, a text whose claimed author is not the true author, or a work whose real author attributed it to a figure of the past. The name of the author to whom the work is falsely attributed is often prefixed with the particle "pseudo-",^[1] such as "pseudo-Aristotle" or "pseudo-Dionysius." These terms refer to the anonymous authors of works falsely attributed to Aristotle and Dionysius the Areopagite, respectively.

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite

In biblical studies, the term pseudepigrapha can refer to an assorted collection of Jewish religious works thought to be written c. 300 BCE to 300 CE. They are distinguished by Protestants from the deuterocanonical books (Catholic and Orthodox) or Apocrypha (Protestant), the books that appear in extant copies of the Septuagint in the fourth century or later^[2] and the Vulgate, but not in the Hebrew Bible or in Protestant Bibles.^[3] In Catholic usage, the Old Testament books accepted by the Catholic Church are referred to as the deuterocanonical books, and Catholic writers commonly reserve the word apocrypha for spurious or noncanonical writings rather than for the deuterocanon.^[4][5] In addition, two books considered canonical in the Orthodox Tewahedo churches, the Book of Enoch and Book of Jubilees, are noncanonical in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox canons and are classified by most scholars among the Old Testament pseudepigrapha.^[6][7][8]

Scholars also apply the term to some canonical works that claim authorship but whose authorship is doubted. For example, the Book of Daniel is widely considered to have been written in the 2nd century BCE, about 400 years after the prophet Daniel supposedly lived, and thus to be pseudepigraphic in that sense.^[9][10] A New Testament example often discussed is 2 Peter, which many scholars date to the early 2nd century. Early Christians, such as Origen, voiced doubts about its authorship.^[11]

The term has also been used by Quranist Muslims to describe hadiths. Quranists argue that most hadiths are later fabrications from the 8th and 9th centuries that were falsely attributed to Muhammad.^[12][13]

Etymology

The word pseudepigraph comes from Greek: ψευδής pseudḗs "false" and ἐπιγραφή epigraphḗ "name", "inscription", or "ascription." When taken together it means "false superscription or title."^[14] See the related field epigraphy. The plural of "pseudepigraph" (sometimes Latinized as "pseudepigraphon" or "pseudepigraphum") is "pseudepigrapha."

Naming

When a text is shown to have been falsely attributed to a particular author, and the true identity of the author is not known, the author can be referred to by a combination of pseudo- and the traditional author's name. For example, the Armenian History has been falsely attributed to a seventh century Armenian historian named Sebeos. It is therefore called Pseudo-Sebeos.^[15]

Levels of authenticity

Scholars have identified seven levels of authenticity in a hierarchy that ranges from literal authorship to outright forgery.^[16]

1. Literal authorship. A church leader writes a letter in his own hand.
2. Dictation. A church leader dictates a letter almost word for word to an amanuensis.
3. Delegated authorship. A church leader describes the basic content of an intended letter to a disciple or to an amanuensis.
4. Posthumous authorship. A church leader dies, and his disciples finish a letter that he had intended to write, then send it in his name.
5. Apprentice authorship. A church leader dies, and disciples who had been authorized to speak for him while he was alive continue to do so by writing letters in his name years or decades after his death.
6. Honorable pseudepigraphy. A church leader dies, and admirers seek to honor him by writing letters in his name as a tribute to his influence and in the sincere belief that they are responsible bearers of his tradition.
7. Forgery. A church leader obtains sufficient prominence that, either before or after his death, people seek to exploit his legacy by forging letters in his name and presenting him as a supporter of their own ideas.

Classical and biblical studies

Old Testament and intertestamental studies

See also: Apocrypha, Biblical apocrypha, and List of Old Testament pseudepigrapha

In biblical studies, pseudepigrapha refers particularly to works that purport to be written by noted authorities in the Old or New Testaments or by persons involved in Jewish or Christian religious study or history. Such works can also be written about biblical matters in a way that appears as authoritative as texts included in the Judeo Christian scriptures. Eusebius indicates this usage dates back at least to Serapion of Antioch. Eusebius records of Serapion: "But those writings which are falsely inscribed with their name (ta pseudepigrapha), we as experienced persons reject."^[17]

Many such works were also called Apocrypha, which originally connoted "private" or "non public", that is, not endorsed for public reading in the liturgy. An example of a text that is both apocryphal and pseudepigraphical is the Odes of Solomon. It is considered pseudepigraphical because it was not written by Solomon. It is a collection of early Christian, first to second century, hymns and poems originally written not in Hebrew, and apocryphal because it was not accepted into the Tanakh or the New Testament.^[18]

There is a tendency not to use the word pseudepigrapha for works later than about 300 CE when referring to biblical matters.^[3] But late appearing compositions such as the Gospel of Barnabas, the Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius, the herbal attributed to Pseudo-Apuleius, and the writings attributed to Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite are classic cases of pseudepigraphy. In the fifth century the moralist Salvian published Contra avaritiam ("Against avarice") under the name Timothy. A letter survives in which he explained to his former pupil, Bishop Salonius, his motives for doing so.^[19]

The term pseudepigrapha is also commonly used to describe numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE^[3], including:

• 3 Maccabees
• 4 Maccabees
• Assumption of Moses
• Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)
• Slavonic Second Book of Enoch
• Book of Jubilees
• 3 Baruch
• Letter of Aristeas
• Life of Adam and Eve
• Ascension of Isaiah
• Psalms of Solomon
• Sibylline Oracles
• 2 Baruch
• Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
• 4 Ezra
• Apocalypse of Abraham

Many canonical books have been reevaluated by modern scholars, especially since the 19th century, as likely cases of pseudepigraphy. The Book of Daniel directly claims to be written by the prophet Daniel. Yet there are strong reasons to date its final composition centuries after Daniel's lifetime, including the absence of references to it before the 2nd century BCE and its pattern of accurate "predictions" up to the time of Antiochus IV Epiphanes that function as retrospective prophecy.^[11][20]

New Testament studies

Christian scholars traditionally maintained that nothing known to be pseudepigraphical was admitted to the New Testament canon.

The Catholic Encyclopedia summarizes the titling of the four Gospels as ancient, but not necessarily original to the authors themselves, and notes that the four Gospels were originally issued without author names and only later associated "according to" particular compilers^[21], stating:

The first four historical books of the New Testament are supplied with titles, which however ancient, do not go back to the respective authors of those sacred texts. The Canon of Muratori, Clement of Alexandria, and St. Irenaeus bear distinct witness to the existence of those headings in the latter part of the second century of our era. Indeed, the manner in which Clement (Strom. I, xxi), and St. Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. III, xi, 7) employ them implies that, at that early date, our present titles to the gospels had been in current use for some considerable time. Hence, it may be inferred that they were prefixed to the evangelical narratives as early as the first part of that same century. That however, they do not go back to the first century of the Christian era, or at least that they are not original, is a position generally held at the present day. It is felt that since they are similar for the four Gospels, although the same Gospels were composed at some interval from each other, those titles were not framed and consequently not prefixed to each individual narrative, before the collection of the four Gospels was actually made. Besides as well pointed out by Prof. Bacon, "the historical books of the New Testament differ from its apocalyptic and epistolary literature, as those of the Old Testament differ from its prophecy, in being invariably anonymous, and for the same reason. Prophecies, whether in the earlier or in the later sense, and letters, to have authority, must be referable to some individual; the greater his name, the better. But history was regarded as common possession. Its facts spoke for themselves. Only as the springs of common recollection began to dwindle, and marked differences to appear between the well-informed and accurate Gospels and the untrustworthy ... become worth while for the Christian teacher or apologist to specify whether the given representation of the current tradition was 'according to' this or that special compiler, and to state his qualifications." It thus appears that the present titles of the Gospels are not traceable to the Evangelists themselves.^[22]

Agnostic biblical scholar Bart D. Ehrman argues that only seven of the Pauline epistles are convincingly genuine and that most of the remaining New Testament writings were written by unknown authors and not the well known figures to whom they were later ascribed.^[23] The earliest and best manuscripts of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are anonymous.^[24] Acts, Hebrews, 1 John, 2 John, and 3 John are also anonymous.^[24]

Dale Martin taught that the four canonical gospels are anonymous rather than pseudonymous because the texts themselves do not claim authorship. The names were supplied later by the tradition.^[25][26][27]

Pauline epistles

Main articles: Pauline interpolations and forgeries and Pauline epistles

Thirteen New Testament letters are attributed to Paul and are still considered by Christians to carry Paul's authority. These letters are part of the Christian Bible and are foundational for the theologies of many churches. Therefore, letters that some scholars judge to be pseudepigraphic are not necessarily considered any less valuable for Christian teaching.^[28]

Authorship of 6 out of the 13 canonical epistles of Paul is widely questioned by both Christian and non Christian scholars.^[29] These are Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus. These six books are often called the "deutero Pauline letters" by skeptical scholars, on the grounds that they present vocabulary, style, or ecclesial concerns that differ from the undisputed letters. The three "Pastoral Epistles" (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus) are so similar to one another that they are often thought to be by the same unknown author, either writing as Paul or in Paul's name.^[30][31]

Catholic epistles

Main article: Catholic epistles

Seven New Testament letters are attributed to several apostles, such as Saint Peter, John the Apostle, and Jesus's brothers James and Jude.

Three of the seven letters are anonymous, traditionally grouped as the Johannine epistles. Most modern scholars do not think the author was John the son of Zebedee, but there is no consensus for any particular historical figure.^[32][33]

Two letters claim to have been written by Simon Peter. These are the First and Second Epistles of Peter, the Petrine epistles. Most modern scholars judge that the second epistle was probably not written by Peter, while opinions are divided on the first.^[23]

In one epistle, the author refers to himself only as James (Ἰάκωβος Iákobos). It is not known which New Testament figure named James is intended. A similar problem presents itself with the Epistle of Jude (Ἰούδας Ioudas). The writer names himself "a brother of James" but does not indicate any familial relationship to Jesus in the letter itself. Later Christian traditions identify both authors with members of Jesus's family, but the texts do not claim this.^[23]

Later pseudepigrapha

The Gospel of Peter^[34] and the attribution to Paul of the Epistle to the Laodiceans are examples of pseudepigrapha excluded from the New Testament canon.^[31] Further examples include the Gospel of Barnabas^[35] and the Gospel of Judas, which begins by presenting itself as "the secret account of the revelation that Jesus spoke in conversation with Judas Iscariot."^[36]

The Vision of Ezra is an ancient apocryphal text purportedly written by the biblical scribe Ezra. The earliest surviving manuscripts, in Latin, date to the 11th century, although textual features strongly suggest that the work was originally composed in Greek. Like the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra, the work is clearly Christian and portrays several apostles in heaven. The text is notably shorter than the apocalypse.

The Donation of Constantine is a forged Roman imperial decree by which the 4th century emperor Constantine the Great supposedly transferred authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire to the Pope. Probably composed in the 8th century, it was used, especially in the 13th century, in support of claims of political authority by the papacy.^[37] Lorenzo Valla, an Italian Catholic priest and Renaissance humanist, is credited with exposing the forgery with philological arguments in 1439 to 1440.^[38]

In Russian history, Muscovites reportedly received in 1561 a synodical charter from the Patriarch of Constantinople confirming Ivan the Terrible in the title of Tsar. Later scholarship questioned the authenticity of the signatures and the manner of its issuance. Studies noted that many signatures were penned by two or three scribes, and Russian church historians of the early 20th century discussed whether the charter had been produced without a formal synod and for financial gain.^[39][40]

The Anaphorae of Mar Nestorius, employed in some Eastern Christian Churches, is attributed to Nestorius, but its earliest manuscripts are in Syriac, which raises questions about Greek authorship.^[41][42]

The Zohar

The Zohar (Hebrew: זֹהַר, "Splendor" or "Radiance"), a foundational work of Jewish mystical thought in Kabbalah, first appeared in Spain in the 13th century and was published by Moses de León, who ascribed it to the 2nd century sage Shimon bar Yochai.^[43] Modern academic analysis, especially that of Gershom Scholem, argues that de León was the principal author, on linguistic and historical grounds, while acknowledging the possibility of contributions from a circle of kabbalists.^[44][45]

Ovid

Conrad Celtes, a noted German humanist scholar and poet of the German Renaissance, collected numerous Greek and Latin manuscripts as librarian of the Imperial Library in Vienna. In a 1504 letter to the publisher Aldus Manutius^[46] Celtes claimed to have discovered the missing books of Ovid's Fasti. It turned out that the verses had been composed by an 11th century monk and were known to the Empire of Nicaea according to William of Rubruck. Even so, many scholars believed Celtes and continued to write about the missing books well into the 17th century.^[47]

As a literary device

Pseudepigraphy has been employed as a metafictional technique. Notable examples include James Hogg (The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner), Thomas Carlyle (Sartor Resartus), Jorge Luis Borges ("An Examination of the Works of Herbert Quain", "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote"), Vladimir Nabokov (Pale Fire), Stanislaw Lem (A Perfect Vacuum; Imaginary Magnitude) Roberto Bolaño (Nazi Literature in the Americas) and Stefan Heym (The Lenz Papers).

Edgar Rice Burroughs also presented many of his works, including the Tarzan books, as pseudepigrapha, prefacing each book with an introduction presenting the supposed actual author, with Burroughs himself posing as editor. J. R. R. Tolkien in The Lord of the Rings presents that story and The Hobbit as translated from the fictional Red Book of Westmarch. The twelve books of The Flashman Papers by George MacDonald Fraser similarly present themselves as annotated editions of a discovered manuscript. A similar device was used by Ian Fleming in The Spy Who Loved Me.

See also

• Channeling (New Age)
• Criticism of Mormon sacred texts
• False attribution
• Found manuscript
• Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha
• List of Old Testament pseudepigrapha
• Literary forgery
• Modern pseudepigrapha
• Prophecy of the Popes
• Pseudo-Aristotle