Uruk
Ancient city of Sumer and Babylonia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Uruk, the archeological site known today as Warka, was an ancient city in the Near East, located east of the current bed of the Euphrates River, on an ancient, now-dried channel of the river in Muthanna Governorate, Iraq. The site lies 93 kilometers (58 miles) northwest of ancient Ur, 108 kilometers (67 miles) southeast of ancient Nippur, and 24 kilometers (15 miles) southeast of ancient Larsa. It is 30 km (19 mi) east of modern Samawah.[1]
 Shown within Iraq | |
| Location | Muthanna Governorate, Iraq |
|---|---|
| Region | Mesopotamia |
| Coordinates | 31°19′27″N 45°38′14″E |
| Type | Settlement |
| Area | 6 km2 (2.3 sq mi) |
| History | |
| Founded | c. 5000 BC |
| Abandoned | c. 700 AD |
| Periods | Uruk period to Early Middle Ages |
| Site notes | |
| Excavation dates | 1850, 1854, 1902, 1912–1913, 1928–1939, 1953–1978, 2001–2002, 2016–present |
| Archaeologists | William Loftus, Walter Andrae, Julius Jordan, Heinrich Lenzen, Margarete van Ess |
| Official name | Uruk Archaeological City |
| Part of | Ahwar of Southern Iraq |
| Criteria | Mixed: (iii)(v)(ix)(x) |
| Reference | 1481-005 |
| Inscription | 2016 (40th Session) |
| Area | 541 ha (2.09 sq mi) |
| Buffer zone | 292 ha (1.13 sq mi) |
Uruk is the type site for the Uruk period. Uruk played a leading role in the early urbanization of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium BC. By the final phase of the Uruk period around 3100 BC, the city may have had 40,000 residents,[2] with 80,000–90,000 people living in its environs,[3] making it the largest urban area in the world at the time. Gilgamesh, according to the chronology presented in the Sumerian King List (SKL), ruled Uruk in the 27th century BC. After the end of the Early Dynastic period, with the rise of the Akkadian Empire, the city lost its prime importance. It had periods of florescence during the Isin-Larsa period, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods and throughout the Achaemenid (550–330 BC), Seleucid (312–63 BC) and Parthian (227 BC to AD 224) periods, until it was finally abandoned shortly before or after the Islamic conquest of 633–638.
William Kennett Loftus visited the site of Uruk in 1849, identifying it as "Erech", known as "the second city of Nimrod", and led the first excavations from 1850 to 1854.[4] In myth and literature, Uruk was famous as the capital city of Gilgamesh, hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Biblical scholars identify Uruk as the biblical Erech (Genesis 10:10), the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar.[5]
Toponymy
Uruk (/ˈʊrʊk/) has several spellings in cuneiform; in Sumerian it is 𒀕𒆠 unugᵏⁱ;[6] in Akkadian, 𒌷𒀕 or 𒌷𒀔 Uruk (URUUNUG). Its names in other languages include: Arabic: وركاء or أوروك, Warkāʾ or Auruk; Classical Syriac: ܐܘܿܪܘܿܟ, ʿÚrūk; Biblical Hebrew: אֶרֶךְ ʾÉreḵ; Ancient Greek: Ὀρχόη, romanized: Orkhóē, Ὀρέχ Orékh, Ὠρύγεια Ōrúgeia.
History
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Perspective
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According to the SKL, Uruk was founded by the king Enmerkar. Though the king-list mentions a father before him, the epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta relates that Enmerkar constructed the House of Heaven (Sumerian: e₂-anna; cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭 E₂.AN) for the goddess Inanna in the Eanna District of Uruk. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh builds the city wall around Uruk and is king of the city.
Uruk went through several phases of growth, from the Early Uruk period (4000–3500 BC) to the Late Uruk period (3500–3100 BC).[1] The city was formed when two smaller Ubaid settlements merged. The temple complexes at their cores became the Eanna District and the Anu District dedicated to Inanna and Anu, respectively.[1] The Anu District was originally called 'Kullaba' (Kulab or Unug-Kulaba) prior to merging with the Eanna District. Kullaba dates to the Eridu period when it was one of the oldest and most important cities of Sumer.
The Eanna District was composed of several buildings with spaces for workshops, and it was walled off from the city. By contrast, the Anu District was built on a terrace with a temple at the top. It is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna from the earliest Uruk period throughout the history of the city.[7] The rest of the city was composed of typical courtyard houses, grouped by profession of the occupants, in districts around Eanna and Anu. Uruk was extremely well penetrated by a canal system that has been described as "Venice in the desert".[8] This canal system flowed throughout the city connecting it with the maritime trade on the ancient Euphrates River as well as the surrounding agricultural belt.
The original city of Uruk was situated southwest of the ancient Euphrates River, now dry. Currently, the site of Warka is northeast of the modern Euphrates river. The change in position was caused by a shift in the Euphrates at some point in history, which, together with salination due to irrigation, may have contributed to the decline of Uruk.
Uruk period
In addition to being one of the first cities, Uruk was the main force of urbanization and state formation during the Uruk period, or 'Uruk expansion' (4000–3200 BC). This period of 800 years saw a shift from small, agricultural villages to a larger urban center with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society. Although other settlements coexisted with Uruk, they were generally about 10 hectares while Uruk was significantly larger and more complex. The Uruk period culture exported by Sumerian traders and colonists had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. Ultimately, Uruk could not maintain long-distance control over colonies such as Tell Brak by military force.
Early Dynastic, Akkadian, Ur III, and Old Babylonian period
Dynastic categorizations are described solely from the Sumerian King List, which is of problematic historical accuracy;[9][10] the organization might be analogous to Manetho's.
In 2009, two different copies of an inscription were put forth as evidence of a 19th-century BC ruler of Uruk named Naram-sin.[11]
Uruk continued as principality of Ur, Babylon, and later Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian Empires. It enjoyed brief periods of independence during the Isin-Larsa period, under kings such as (possibly Ikūn-pî-Ištar, Sumu-binasa, Alila-hadum, and Naram-Sin), Sîn-kāšid, his son Sîn-irībam, his son Sîn-gāmil, Ilum-gāmil, brother of Sîn-gāmil, Etēia, AN-am3 (Dingiram), ÌR3-ne-ne (Irdanene), who was defeated by Rīm-Sîn I of Larsa in his year 14 (c. 1740 BC), Rîm-Anum and Nabi-ilīšu.[12][11][13][14][15]
It is known that during the time of Ilum-gāmil a temple was built for the god Iškur (Hadad) based on a clay cone inscription reading "For the god Iškur, lord, fearsome splendour of heaven and earth, his lord, for the life of Ilum-gāmil, king of Uruk, son of Sîn-irībam, Ubar-Adad, his servant, son of Apil-Kubi, built the Esaggianidu, ('House — whose closing is good'), the residence of his office of en, and thereby made it truly befitting his own li[fe]".[12]
Uruk into Late Antiquity
Although it had been a thriving city in Early Dynastic Sumer, especially Early Dynastic II, Uruk was ultimately annexed by the Akkadian Empire and went into decline. Later, in the Neo-Sumerian period, Uruk enjoyed revival as a major economic and cultural center under the sovereignty of Ur. The Eanna District was restored as part of an ambitious building program, which included a new temple for Inanna. This temple included a ziggurat, the 'House of the Universe' (Cuneiform: E₂.SAR.A) (𒂍𒊬𒀀) to the northeast of the Uruk period Eanna ruins.
Following the collapse of Ur (c. 2000 BC), Uruk went into a steep decline until about 850 BC when the Neo-Assyrian Empire annexed it as a provincial capital. Under the Neo-Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians, Uruk regained much of its former glory. By 250 BC, a new temple complex the 'Head Temple' (Akkadian: Bīt Reš) was added to northeast of the Uruk period Anu district. The Bīt Reš along with the Esagila was one of the two main centers of Neo-Babylonian astronomy. All of the temples and canals were restored again under Nabopolassar. During this era, Uruk was divided into five main districts: the Adad Temple, Royal Orchard, Ištar Gate, Lugalirra Temple, and Šamaš Gate districts.[16]
Uruk, known as Orcha (Ὄρχα) to the Greeks, continued to thrive under the Seleucid Empire. During this period, Uruk was a city of 300 hectares and perhaps 40,000 inhabitants.[16][17][18] In 200 BC, the 'Great Sanctuary' (Cuneiform: E₂.IRI₁₂.GAL, Sumerian: eš-gal) of Ishtar was added between the Anu and Eanna districts. The ziggurat of the temple of Anu, which was rebuilt in this period, was the largest ever built in Mesopotamia.[18] When the Seleucids lost Mesopotamia to the Parthians in 141 BC, Uruk continued in use.[19] The decline of Uruk after the Parthians may have been in part caused by a shift in the Euphrates River. By 300 AD, Uruk was mostly abandoned, but a group of Mandaeans settled there, based on some finds of Mandaic incantation bowls, and by c. 700 AD it was completely abandoned.[20]
Political history
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Uruk played a very important part in the political history of Sumer. Starting from the Early Uruk period, the city exercised hegemony over nearby settlements. At this time (c. 3800 BC), there were two centers of 20 ha (49 acres), Uruk in the south and Nippur in the north surrounded by much smaller 10 ha (25 acres) settlements.[23] Later, in the Late Uruk period, its sphere of influence extended over all Sumer and beyond to external colonies in upper Mesopotamia and Syria.
In Uruk, in southern Mesopotamia, Sumerian civilization seems to have reached its creative peak. This is pointed out repeatedly in the references to this city in religious and, especially, in literary texts, including those of mythological content; the historical tradition as preserved in the Sumerian king-list confirms it. From Uruk the center of political gravity seems to have moved to Ur.
— Oppenheim[24]
The recorded chronology of rulers over Uruk includes both mythological and historic figures in five dynasties. As in the rest of Sumer, power moved progressively from the temple to the palace. Rulers from the Early Dynastic period exercised control over Uruk and at times over all of Sumer. In myth, kingship was lowered from heaven to Eridu then passed successively through five cities until the deluge which ended the Uruk period. Afterwards, kingship passed to Kish at the beginning of the Early Dynastic period, which corresponds to the beginning of the Early Bronze Age in Sumer. In the Early Dynastic I period (2900–2800 BC), Uruk was in theory under the control of Kish. This period is sometimes called the Golden Age. During the Early Dynastic II period (2800–2600 BC), Uruk was again the dominant city exercising control of Sumer. This period is the time of the First Dynasty of Uruk sometimes called the Heroic Age. However, by the Early Dynastic IIIa period (2600–2500 BC) Uruk had lost sovereignty, this time to Ur. This period, corresponding to the Early Bronze Age III, is the end of the First Dynasty of Uruk. In the Early Dynastic IIIb period (2500–2334 BC), also called the Pre-Sargonic period (before the rise of the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad), Uruk continued to be ruled by Ur.
Architecture
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Perspective
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Uruk has some of the first monumental constructions in architectural history, and certainly the largest of its era. Much of Near Eastern architecture can trace its roots to these prototypical buildings. The structures of Uruk are cited by two different naming conventions, one in German from the initial expedition, and the English translation of the same. The stratigraphy of the site is complex and as such much of the dating is disputed. In general, the structures follow the two main typologies of Sumerian architecture, Tripartite with 3 parallel halls and T-Shaped also with three halls, but the central one extends into two perpendicular bays at one end. The following table summarizes the significant architecture of the Eanna and Anu Districts.[26] Temple N, Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, and Round Pillar Hall are often referred to as a single structure; the Cone-Mosaic Temple.
| Eanna district: 4000–2000 BC | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Structure name | German name | Period | Typology | Material | Area in m² | |
| Stone-Cone Temple | Steinstifttempel | Uruk VI | T-shaped | Limestone and bitumen | x | |
| Limestone Temple | Kalksteintempel | Uruk V | T-shaped | Limestone and bitumen | 2373 | |
| Riemchen Building | Riemchengebäude | Uruk IVb | unique | Adobe brick | x | |
| Cone-Mosaic Temple | Stiftmosaikgebäude | Uruk IVb | unique | x | x | |
| Temple A | Gebäude A | Uruk IVb | Tripartite | Adobe brick | 738 | |
| Temple B | Gebäude B | Uruk IVb | Tripartite | Adobe brick | 338 | |
| Temple C | Gebäude C | Uruk IVb | T-shaped | Adobe brick | 1314 | |
| Temple/Palace E | Gebäude E | Uruk IVb | unique | Adobe brick | 2905 | |
| Temple F | Gebäude F | Uruk IVb | T-shaped | Adobe brick | 465 | |
| Temple G | Gebäude G | Uruk IVb | T-shaped | Adobe brick | 734 | |
| Temple H | Gebäude H | Uruk IVb | T-shaped | Adobe brick | 628 | |
| Temple D | Gebäude D | Uruk IVa | T-shaped | Adobe brick | 2596 | |
| Room I | Gebäude I | Uruk V | x | x | x | |
| Temple J | Gebäude J | Uruk IVb | x | Adobe brick | x | |
| Temple K | Gebäude K | Uruk IVb | x | Adobe brick | x | |
| Temple L | Gebäude L | Uruk V | x | x | x | |
| Temple M | Gebäude M | Uruk IVa | x | Adobe brick | x | |
| Temple N | Gebäude N | Uruk IVb | unique | Adobe brick | x | |
| Temple O | Gebäude O | x | x | x | x | |
| Hall Building/Great Hall | Hallenbau | Uruk IVa | unique | Adobe brick | 821 | |
| Pillar Hall | Pfeilerhalle | Uruk IVa | unique | x | 219 | |
| Bath Building | Bäder | Uruk III | unique | x | x | |
| Red Temple | Roter Tempel | Uruk IVa | x | Adobe brick | x | |
| Great Court | Großer Hof | Uruk IVa | unique | Burnt Brick | 2873 | |
| Rammed-Earth Building | Stampflehm | Uruk III | unique | x | x | |
| Round Pillar Hall | Rundpeifeilerhalle | Uruk IVb | unique | Adobe brick | x | |
| Anu district: 4000–2000 BC | ||||||
| Stone Building | Steingebäude | Uruk VI | unique | Limestone and bitumen | x | |
| White Temple | x | Uruk III | Tripartite | Adobe brick | 382 | |
It is clear Eanna was dedicated to Inanna symbolized by Venus from the Uruk period. At that time, she was worshipped in four aspects as Inanna of the netherworld (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-kur), Inanna of the morning (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-hud₂), Inanna of the evening (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-sig), and Inanna (Sumerian: ᵈinanna-NUN).[7] The names of four temples in Uruk at this time are known, but it is impossible to match them with either a specific structure and in some cases a deity.[7]
- sanctuary of Inanna (Sumerian: eš-ᵈinanna)
- sanctuary of Inanna of the evening (Sumerian: eš-ᵈinanna-sig)
- temple of heaven (Sumerian: e₂-an)
- temple of heaven and netherworld (Sumerian: e₂-an-ki)
- Architecture of Uruk
Plan of Eanna VI–V
Plan of Eanna IVb
Plan of Eanna IVa
Plan of Eanna III
Plan of Neo-Sumerian Eanna
Plan of Anu District Phase E
Reconstruction of a mosaic from the Eanna temple.
Detail of Reconstruction of a mosaic from the Eanna temple.
Archaeology
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Perspective
By the end of the Uruk period c. 3100 BC) Uruk had reached a size of 250 ha (620 acres). During the following Jemdet Nasr period it grew to a size of 600 ha (1,500 acres) by c. 2800 BC with the main temple area of Eanna being completely rebuilt after leveling the foundations of the Uruk period construction.[27] A new city wall was constructed in this period.[28]
The site, which lies about 50 miles (80 km) northwest of ancient Ur, is one of the largest in the region at around 5.5 km2 (2.1 sq mi) in area. The maximum extent is 3 km (1.9 miles) north/south, and 2.5 km (1.6 miles) east/west. There are three major tells within the site: The Eanna district, Bit Resh (Kullaba), and Irigal. Archaeologically, the site is divided into six parts
- the É-Anna ziggurat ' Egipar-imin,
- the É-Anna enclosure (Zingel),
- the Anu-Antum temple complex, BitRes and Anu-ziggurat,
- Irigal, the South Building,
- Parthian structures including the Gareus-temple, and the Multiple Apse building,
- the "Gilgameš" city-wall with associated Sinkâsid Palace and the Seleucid Bit Akîtu.[29]
The location of Uruk was first noted by Fraser and Ross in 1835.[30] William Loftus excavated there in 1850 and 1854 after a scouting mission in 1849. By Loftus' own account, he admits that the first excavations were superficial at best, as his financiers forced him to deliver large museum artifacts at a minimal cost.[31] A large basalt stela found by Loftus was later lost.[32] Warka was also scouted by archaeologist Walter Andrae in 1902.[33] In 1905 Warka was visited by archaeologist Edgar James Banks.[34]
From 1912 to 1913, Julius Jordan and his team from the German Oriental Society discovered the temple of Ishtar, one of four known temples located at the site. The temples at Uruk were quite remarkable as they were constructed with brick and adorned with colorful mosaics. Jordan also discovered part of the city wall. It was later discovered that this 40-to-50-foot (12 to 15 m) high brick wall, probably utilized as a defense mechanism, totally encompassed the city at a length of 9 km (5.6 mi). Utilizing sedimentary strata dating techniques, this wall is estimated to have been erected around 3000 BC. Jordan produced a contour map of the entire site.[28] The GOS returned to Uruk in 1928 and excavated until 1939, when World War II intervened. The team was led by Jordan until 1931 when Jordan became Director of Antiquities in Baghdad, then by A. Nöldeke, Ernst Heinrich, and H. J. Lenzen.[35][36] Among the finds was the Stell of the Lion Hunt, excavated in a Jemdat Nadr layer but sylistically dated to Uruk IV.[37]
The German excavations resumed after the war and were under the direction of Heinrich Lenzen from 1954 to 1967.[38][39][40] He was followed in 1968 by J. Schmidt, and in 1978 by R.M. Boehmer.[41][42] In total, the German archaeologists spent 39 seasons working at Uruk. The results are documented in two series of reports:
- Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk (ADFU), 17 volumes, 1912–2001
- Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka, Endberichte (AUWE), 25 volumes, 1987–2007
Most recently, from 2001 to 2002, the German Archaeological Institute team led by Margarete van Ess, with Joerg Fassbinder and Helmut Becker, conducted a partial magnetometer survey in Uruk. In addition to the geophysical survey, core samples and aerial photographs were taken. This was followed up with high-resolution satellite imagery in 2005.[43] Work resumed in 2016 and is currently concentrated on the city wall area and a survey of the surrounding landscape.[44][45][46] Part of the work has been to create a digital twin of the Uruk archaeological area.[47] The current effort also involves geophysical surveying. The soil characteristics of the site make ground penetrating radar unsuitable so caesium magnetometers, combined with resistivity probes, are being used.[48]
Cuneiform tablets
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A number of Proto-cuneiform clay tablets were found at Uruk. About 190 were Uruk V period (c. 3500 BC) "numerical tablets" or "impressed tablets", 1776 were from the Uruk IV period (c. 3300 BC), 3094 from the Uruk III period (c. 3200-2900 BC) which is also called the Jemdet Nasr period.[49][50] Later cuneiform tablets were deciphered and include the famous SKL, a record of kings of the Sumerian civilization. There was an even larger cache of legal and scholarly tablets of the Neo-Babylonian, Late Babylonian, and Seleucid period, that have been published by Adam Falkenstein and other Assyriological members of the German Archaeological Institute in Baghdad as Jan J. A. Djik,[51] Hermann Hunger, Antoine Cavigneaux, Egbert von Weiher,[52][53][54][55] and Karlheinz Kessler, or others as Erlend Gehlken.[56][57][58] Many of the cuneiform tablets form acquisitions by museums and collections as the British Museum, Yale Babylonian Collection, and the Louvre. The latter holds a unique cuneiform tablet in Aramaic known as the Aramaic Uruk incantation. The last dated cuneiform tablet from Uruk was W22340a, an astronomical almanac, which is dated to 79/80 AD.[59]
The oldest known writing to feature a person's name was found in Uruk, in the form of several tablets that mention Kushim, who (assuming they are an individual person) served as an accountant recording transactions made in trading barley – 29,086 measures barley 37 months Kushim.[60][61]
Beveled rim bowls were the most common type of container used during the Uruk period. They are believed to be vessels for serving rations of food or drink to dependent laborers. The introduction of the fast wheel for throwing pottery was developed during the later part of the Uruk period, and made the mass production of pottery simpler and more standardized.[62]
Artifacts
The Mask of Warka, also known as the 'Lady of Uruk' and the 'Sumerian Mona Lisa', dating from 3100 BC, is one of the earliest representations of the human face. The carved marble female face is probably a depiction of Inanna. It is approximately 20 cm (7.9 in) tall, and may have been incorporated into a larger cult image. The mask was looted from the Iraq Museum during the invasion of Iraq in April 2003. It was recovered in September 2003 and returned to the museum.
Lugal-kisalsi, king of Uruk
Mask of Warka
Bull sculpture, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3000 BC
Stele of the Lion Hunt – Uruk period
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Archaeological levels of Uruk
Archeologists have discovered multiple cities of Uruk built atop each other in chronological order.[26]
- Uruk XVIII Eridu period (c. 5000 BC): the founding of Uruk
- Uruk XVIII–XVI Late Ubaid period (4800–4200 BC)
- Uruk XVI–X Early Uruk period (4000–3800 BC)
- Uruk IX–VI Middle Uruk period (3800–3400 BC)
- Uruk V–IV Late Uruk period (3400–3100 BC): the earliest monumental temples of Eanna District are built
- Uruk III Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC): the 9 km city wall is built
- Uruk II
- Uruk I
Anu District
The area traditionally called the Anu district consists of a single massive terrace, the Anu Ziggurat, originally proposed to have been dedicated to the Sumerian sky god Anu. Sometime in the Uruk III period the massive White Temple was built atop the ziggurat. Under the northwest edge of the ziggurat an Uruk VI period structure, the Stone Temple, has been discovered.
The Stone Temple was built of limestone and bitumen on a podium of rammed earth and plastered with lime mortar. The podium itself was built over a woven reed mat called ĝipar, which was ritually used as a nuptial bed. The ĝipar was a source of generative power which then radiated upward into the structure. The structure of the Stone Temple further develops some mythological concepts from Enuma Elish, perhaps involving libation rites as indicated from the channels, tanks, and vessels found there. The structure was ritually destroyed, covered with alternating layers of clay and stone, then excavated and filled with mortar sometime later.
The Anu Ziggurat began with a massive mound topped by a cella during the Uruk period (c. 4000 BC), and was expanded through 14 phases of construction. These phases have been labeled L to A₃ (L is sometimes called X).[26] The earliest phase used architectural features similar to PPNA cultures in Anatolia: a single chamber cella with a terrazzo floor beneath which bucrania were found. In phase E, corresponding to the Uruk III period (c. 3200–3000 BC), the White Temple was built. The White Temple could be seen from a great distance across the plain of Sumer, as it was elevated 21 m and covered in gypsum plaster which reflected sunlight like a mirror. In addition to this temple the Anu Ziggurat had a monumental limestone-paved staircase and a trough running parallel to the staircase was used to drain the ziggurat.
Eanna District
The Eanna district is historically significant as both writing and monumental public architecture emerged here during Uruk periods VI–IV. The combination of these two developments places Eanna as arguably the first true city and civilization in human history. Eanna during period IVa contains the earliest examples of writing.[64]
The first building of Eanna, Stone-Cone Temple (Mosaic Temple), was built in period VI over a preexisting Ubaid temple and is enclosed by a limestone wall with an elaborate system of buttresses. The Stone-Cone Temple, named for the mosaic of colored stone cones driven into the adobe brick façade, may be the earliest water cult in Mesopotamia. It was "destroyed by force" in Uruk IVb period and its contents interred in the Riemchen Building.[39]
In the following period, Uruk V, about 100 m east of the Stone-Cone Temple the Limestone Temple was built on a 2 m high rammed-earth podium over a pre-existing Ubaid temple, which like the Stone-Cone Temple represents a continuation of Ubaid culture. However, the Limestone Temple was unprecedented for its size and use of stone, a clear departure from traditional Ubaid architecture. The stone was quarried from an outcrop at Umayyad about 60 km east of Uruk. It is unclear if the entire temple or just the foundation was built of this limestone. The Limestone Temple is probably the first Inanna temple, but it is impossible to know with certainty. Like the Stone-Cone temple the Limestone temple was also covered in cone mosaics. Both of these temples were rectangles with their corners aligned to the cardinal directions, a central hall flanked along the long axis by two smaller halls, and buttressed façades; the prototype of all future Mesopotamian temple architectural typology.
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Between these two monumental structures a complex of buildings (called A–C, E–K, Riemchen, Cone-Mosaic), courts, and walls was built during Eanna IVb. These buildings were built during a time of great expansion in Uruk as the city grew to 250 ha (620 acres) and established long-distance trade, and are a continuation of architecture from the previous period. The Riemchen Building, named for the 16 cm (6.3 in)×16 cm (6.3 in) brick shape called Riemchen by the Germans, is a memorial with a ritual fire kept burning in the center for the Stone-Cone Temple after it was destroyed. For this reason, Uruk IV period represents a reorientation of belief and culture. The facade of this memorial may have been covered in geometric and figural murals. The Riemchen bricks first used in this temple were used to construct all buildings of Uruk IV period Eanna. The use of colored cones as a façade treatment was greatly developed as well, perhaps used to greatest effect in the Cone-Mosaic Temple. Composed of three parts: Temple N, the Round Pillar Hall, and the Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, this temple was the most monumental structure of Eanna at the time. They were all ritually destroyed and the entire Eanna district was rebuilt in period IVa at an even grander scale.
During Eanna IVa, the Limestone Temple was demolished and the Red Temple built on its foundations. The accumulated debris of the Uruk IVb buildings were formed into a terrace, the L-Shaped Terrace, on which Buildings C, D, M, Great Hall, and Pillar Hall were built. Building E was initially thought to be a palace, but later proven to be a communal building. Also in period IV, the Great Court, a sunken courtyard surrounded by two tiers of benches covered in cone mosaic, was built. A small aqueduct drains into the Great Courtyard, which may have irrigated a garden at one time. The impressive buildings of this period were built as Uruk reached its zenith and expanded to 600 hectares. All the buildings of Eanna IVa were destroyed sometime in Uruk III, for unclear reasons.[citation needed]
The architecture of Eanna in period III was very different from what had preceded it. The complex of monumental temples was replaced with baths around the Great Courtyard and the labyrinthine Rammed-Earth Building. This period corresponds to Early Dynastic Sumer c. 2900 BC, a time of great social upheaval when the dominance of Uruk was eclipsed by competing city-states. The fortress-like architecture of this time is a reflection of that turmoil. The temple of Inanna continued functioning during this time in a new form and under a new name, 'The House of Inanna in Uruk' (Sumerian: e₂-ᵈinanna unuᵏⁱ-ga). The location of this structure is currently unknown.[7]
List of rulers
Summarize
Perspective
 | This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (August 2024) |
The Sumerian King List (SKL) lists only 22 rulers among five dynasties of Uruk. The sixth dynasty was an Amorite dynasty not mentioned on the SKL. The following list should not be considered complete:
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Early, Old, Middle, Late, and Final Uruk period(s) (c. 5000 – c. 2900 BC) | ||||||
| Predynastic Uruk (c. 5000 – c. 2900 BC) | ||||||
|
King-priests | fl. c. 5000 – c. 2900 BC |
| |||
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
| Early Dynastic I period (c. 2900 – c. 2700 BC) | ||||||
| First dynasty of Uruk / Uruk I dynasty (c. 2900 – c. 2700 BC) | ||||||
| ||||||
| 1st |  |
Meshkiangasher 𒈩𒆠𒉘𒂵𒊺𒅕 |
Son of Utu | reigned c. 2775 BC (324 years) |
| |
| ||||||
| 2nd |  |
Enmerkar 𒂗𒈨𒅕𒃸 |
Son of Meshkiangasher | "the king of Uruk, who built Uruk" | r. c. 2750, c. 2730 BC (420 years) |
|
| 3rd |  |
Lugalbanda 𒈗𒌉𒁕 |
"the shepherd" | r. c. 2700 BC (1,200 years) |
| |
| 4th |  |
Dumuzid 𒌉𒍣𒋗𒄩 |
"the fisherman whose city was Kuara" | r. c. 2700 BC (110 years) |
| |
| Early Dynastic II period (c. 2700 – c. 2600 BC) | ||||||
| 5th |  |
Gilgamesh 𒀭𒄑𒉋𒂵𒈨𒌋𒌋𒌋 |
Son of Lugalbanda (?) | "the lord of Kulaba" | r. c. 2700, c. 2670, c. 2650 BC (126 years) |
|
| 6th | _Published_in_1923.jpg) |
Ur-Nungal 𒌨𒀭𒉣𒃲 |
Son of Gilgamesh | r. c. 2650 – c. 2620 BC (30 years) |
| |
| 7th | _Published_in_1923.jpg){kind=small} |
Udul-kalama 𒌋𒊨𒌦𒈠 |
Son of Ur-Nungal | r. c. 2620 – c. 2605 BC (15 years) |
| |
| 8th | .jpg) |
La-ba'shum 𒆷𒁀𒀪𒋳 |
r. c. 2605 – c. 2596 BC (9 years) |
| ||
| 9th | .jpg) |
En-nun-tarah-ana 𒂗𒉣𒁰𒀭𒈾 |
r. c. 2596 – c. 2588 BC (8 years) |
| ||
| 10th | Mesh-he 𒈩𒃶 |
"the smith" | r. c. 2588 – c. 2552 BC (36 years) |
| ||
| 11th | Melem-ana 𒈨𒉈𒀭𒈾 |
r. c. 2552 – c. 2546 BC (6 years) |
| |||
| 12th | Lugal-kitun 𒈗𒆠𒂅 |
r. c. 2546 – c. 2510 BC (36 years) |
| |||
| ||||||
| Early Dynastic IIIa period (c. 2550 – c. 2500 BC) | ||||||
| Lumma[68] 𒈝𒈠 |
Uncertain; these two rulers may have fl. c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC sometime during the Early Dynastic (ED) IIIa period |
| ||||
| Ursangpae |
| |||||
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
| Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2500 – c. 2350 BC) | ||||||
| Lugalnamniršumma 𒈗𒉆𒉪𒋧 |
Uncertain; these two rulers may have fl. c. 2500 – c. 2400 BC sometime during the ED IIIb period |
| ||||
 |
Lugalsilâsi I 𒈗𒋻𒋛 |
|||||
 |
Meskalamdug[citation needed] 𒈩𒌦𒄭 |
r. c. 2600, c. 2500 BC | ||||
 |
Mesannepada[citation needed] 𒈩𒀭𒉌𒅆𒊒𒁕 |
r. c. 2500 BC (80 years)[69] |
||||
| Urzage 𒌨𒍠𒌓𒁺 |
r. c. 2400 BC | |||||
| Second dynasty of Uruk / Uruk II dynasty (c. 2500 – c. 2340 BC) | ||||||
| ||||||
| 2nd |  |
Lugal-kinishe-dudu 𒈗𒆠𒉌𒂠𒌌𒌌 |
r. c. 2430, c. 2400 BC (120 years)[69] |
|||
|
Lugal-kisal-si 𒈗𒆦𒋛 |
Son of Lugal-kinishe-dudu | Uncertain; these three rulers may have fl. c. 2400 – c. 2350 BC sometime during the EDIIIb period.[69] | |||
| Urni 𒌨𒉌𒉌𒋾 |
||||||
| Lugalsilâsi II 𒈗𒋻𒋛 |
||||||
| 3rd | Argandea 𒅈𒂵𒀭𒀀 |
r. c. 2350 BC (7 years) |
| |||
| Proto-Imperial period (c. 2350 – c. 2254 BC) | ||||||
| 1st |  |
Enshakushanna 𒂗𒊮𒊨𒀭𒈾 |
Son of Elulu (?) | r. c. 2430, c. 2350 BC (2 to 60 years) |
| |
| ||||||
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
| Third dynasty of Uruk / Uruk III dynasty (c. 2340 – c. 2254 BC) | ||||||
| ||||||
| 1st |  |
Lugalzagesi 𒈗𒍠𒄀𒋛 |
Son of Ukush | r. c. 2340 – c. 2316 BC (25 to 34 years) |
| |
| ||||||
| Girimesi 𒀀𒄩𒋻𒁺𒋛 |
Uncertain; this ruler may have fl. c. 2350 – c. 2254 BC sometime during the Proto-Imperial period.[69] |
| ||||
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
| Akkadian period (c. 2254 – c. 2154 BC) | ||||||
| Fourth dynasty of Uruk / Uruk IV dynasty (c. 2254 – c. 2124 BC) | ||||||
| Amar-girid 𒀫𒀭𒄌𒆠 |
r. c. 2254 BC |
| ||||
| Gutian period (c. 2154 – c. 2119 BC) | ||||||
| ||||||
| 1st |  |
Ur-nigin 𒌨𒌋𒌓𒆤 |
r. c. 2154 – c. 2147 BC (7 years) |
| ||
| 2nd |  |
Ur-gigir 𒌨𒄑𒇀 |
Son of Ur-nigin | r. c. 2147 – c. 2141 BC (6 years) |
| |
| 3rd |  |
Kuda 𒋻𒁕 |
r. c. 2141 – c. 2135 BC (6 years) |
| ||
| 4th | Puzur-ili 𒅤𒊭𒉌𒉌 |
r. c. 2135 – c. 2130 BC (5 years) |
| |||
| 5th | Ur-Utu 𒌨𒀭𒌓 |
Son of Ur-gigir | r. c. 2130 – c. 2124 BC (6 years) |
| ||
| ||||||
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
| Ur III period (c. 2119 – c. 2004 BC) | ||||||
| Fifth dynasty of Uruk / Uruk V dynasty (c. 2124 – c. 1872 BC) | ||||||
| ||||||
| 1st |  |
Utu-hengal 𒀭𒌓𒃶𒅅 |
r. c. 2124 – c. 2113 BC (7 to 26 years) |
| ||
| ||||||
| # | Depiction | Ruler | Succession | Epithet | Approx. dates | Notes |
| Isin-Larsa period (c. 2025 – c. 1763 BC) | ||||||
| Sixth dynasty of Uruk / Uruk VI dynasty (c. 1872 – c. 1802 BC) | ||||||
 |
Sîn-kāšid 𒀭𒂗𒍪𒂵𒅆𒀉 |
r. c. 1865 – c. 1833 BC |
| |||
| Sin-eribam | Son of Sîn-kāšid[citation needed] | r. c. 1833 – c. 1827 BC |
| |||
|
Sîn-gāmil | Son of Sin-eribam | r. c. 1827 – c. 1824 BC |
| ||
| An-am 𒀭𒀀𒀭 |
r. c. 1824 – c. 1816 BC |
| ||||
| Irdanene | Son of Anam | r. c. 1816 – c. 1810 BC |
| |||
| Rîm-Anum | r. c. 1810 – c. 1802 BC |
| ||||
| Nabi-ilishu | r. c. 1802 BC |
| ||||
See also
References
Further reading
External links
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