Applied science

Applied science is about using the findings of science to do something.^[2] In the natural sciences, this is done by engineering. In sciences such as psychology, this can mean using theoretical findings to improve a test method, for example.^[3]

Food science is a branch of applied science.^[1]

Applied research is generally done to solve a problem. Applied chemists invented refrigerants long ago to cool things. Some refigerants escape into the atmosphere and damage the ozone layer, so chemists have developed new refrigerants in another example of applied research. This work not driven by a desire to know, but by a desire to solve a specific problem.^[4][5][6]

Historical Background

Ancient and Pre-Modern Roots

Pyramid of Khafre, Egypt, built c. 2600 BC

Applied science has been around for thousands of years, even before people used the word “science.” It began when ancient people used their observations and hands-on experience to solve everyday problems in farming, building, medicine, and other important areas of life. For example, in Ancient Mesopotamia, scribes wrote down medical treatments, farming methods, and ways to track the stars on clay tablets. This helped them create calendars, manage crops, and build large temples called ziggurats, which were designed to line up with stars in the sky.^[7]

In Ancient Egypt, people used geometry to plan and build giant structures like the pyramids. They had tools like plumb bobs and leveling instruments to help them make straight and even lines.^[8] Egyptian doctors also wrote down hundreds of herbal remedies in scrolls like the Ebers Papyrus, showing how closely they observed the human body and tried different cures.^[9] The Indus Valley Civilization, in what is now Pakistan and India, planned cities in a grid pattern, built public baths, and created advanced drainage systems. They even used standard weights and tools for trade, which made it easier to do business across large areas.^[10]

In China, inventors created useful tools like paper, the compass, gunpowder, and the world’s first seismograph (which detects earthquakes). These inventions came from careful observation and were meant to help people farm better, fight wars, or govern large areas. For example, the iron plow and seed drill made farming faster and more efficient during the Han dynasty.^[11] In Ancient Greece, smart thinkers like Archimedes figured out how levers and floating worked, which helped with building machines and weapons.^[12] Another Greek, Hippocrates, studied how the body works and used his observations to treat patients, laying the foundation for modern medicine.^[13]

The Romans took these ideas and used them to build roads, aqueducts, and amazing buildings like the Pantheon, which still stands today. They used strong materials like concrete and had a deep understanding of how to design buildings that would not fall apart.^[14] During the Islamic Golden Age (from the 8th to the 14th century), scholars like Alhazen studied how light works and invented new ways to test their ideas through experiments.^[15] Doctors like Al-Razi and Avicenna wrote huge books about medicine that doctors in Europe used for hundreds of years.^[16] Muslim engineers also built amazing clocks, windmills, and moving machines called automata.^[17]

In Europe during the Middle Ages, science moved more slowly at first, but things picked up later with inventions like the mechanical clock, better windmills, and farming tools like the heavy plow. These helped grow more food and supported bigger populations. A big reason science advanced was because old books from Greece, India, and the Islamic world were translated into Latin, especially in places like Toledo (Spain) and Baghdad (Iraq). This allowed European scholars to learn from many cultures and helped prepare the way for big changes later, like the Scientific Revolution.^[18]

Scientific Revolution

The Royal Society had its origins in Gresham College in the City of London, and was the first scientific society in the world.

Starting in the 1500s, a period of big changes in science began. People like Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei started to question old ideas about how the universe worked. Instead of just trusting what ancient philosophers like Aristotle said, they used telescopes, math, and experiments to study space. Galileo also studied how objects move by using ramps and pendulums, which helped scientists later create better clocks and machines.

In the 1600s, Johannes Kepler used data from another scientist, Tycho Brahe, to figure out how planets move. His discoveries helped sailors and explorers travel across oceans more accurately using the stars, and this was very important for global trade and creating new maps. Around the same time, Francis Bacon wrote about a new way of doing science, by making observations and doing experiments to solve real problems. Another thinker, René Descartes, used logic and math to study nature, helping scientists and engineers create new tools and machines.

One of the biggest moments came in 1687, when Isaac Newton published a book that explained how gravity works and how objects move. These laws helped people understand everything from falling apples to how the planets move. Newton’s ideas helped improve building design, weapon making, and water flow systems. Scientific groups like the Royal Society in England and the French Academy of Sciences began supporting research that helped with farming, metalworking, navigation, and health problems, like how to turn seawater into drinking water or make better clocks for ships.

In the 1700s, a time called the Enlightenment, more people began to share and use scientific knowledge. Books like the Encyclopédie explained how to make things and fix machines, making science more useful for workers and inventors. In medicine, William Harvey discovered how blood moves through the body by carefully watching how the heart works, and this helped doctors do better surgeries. In 1796, Edward Jenner created the first vaccine for smallpox, saving many lives and showing how science could protect people from disease.

Inventors like James Watt used scientific ideas to improve machines. Watt’s steam engine became one of the most important inventions, helping power factories and trains during the Industrial Revolution. In chemistry, Antoine Lavoisier figured out how burning works and showed that matter is not lost, just changed, this helped improve things like mining and farming. Governments also sent scientists on trips around the world to study plants, animals, and lands, like when Captain James Cook sailed with a scientist named Joseph Banks. These trips helped countries explore, map, and take control of new lands using science.

Finally, countries started building special schools to train people in science and engineering. One example is the École des Ponts et Chaussées in France, which taught people how to design roads, bridges, and canals using math and science. All of these changes showed how science was becoming more focused on solving real-world problems, which is what we now call applied science.

Industrial Revolution

A steam engine built to James Watt's patent in 1848 at Freiberg in Germany

During the 1700s and 1800s, applied science became a powerful force in changing how people lived and worked. Scientists and inventors started using scientific ideas in real-world ways, especially in factories and transportation. One famous example is James Watt, who made big improvements to the steam engine in the 1760s and 1770s. His changes used ideas from thermodynamics (the science of heat and energy), which helped create machines that could power factories, mines, and trains more efficiently.

Other inventors used science to design better tools and machines. For example, Henry Maudslay built the screw-cutting lathe, a machine that could make parts with exact measurements. This made it easier to build machines with parts that could be easily replaced, leading to the rise of modern factories. At the same time, people were improving how metals were made. Abraham Darby discovered in 1709 that iron could be made using coke instead of charcoal. Later, Henry Bessemer developed a method in the 1850s to make strong steel quickly. These materials helped build things like bridges, trains, and ships, which helped countries grow.

In the textile industry (clothes and fabric), inventors like Richard Arkwright, Samuel Crompton, and Edmund Cartwright created machines like the spinning mule and the power loom. These inventions used water power and engineering to make cloth faster, which led to the rise of big mill towns and growing cities. Railroads also became popular during this time. George Stephenson’s train, called the Rocket, built in 1829, helped move people and goods across land much faster. These changes made trade easier and helped countries expand their influence.

Science was also applied in farming and chemistry. Justus von Liebig studied how plants need certain nutrients to grow. His work led to the use of chemical fertilizers, which helped farmers grow more food to feed growing city populations. In medicine and public health, cities were dirty and crowded, so scientists stepped in. Edwin Chadwick worked on sanitation improvements, and John Snow used maps and observation to find out how cholera was spreading in London. Their work helped create systems for clean water and sewer lines.

Electricity became another area where science was applied. Michael Faraday discovered important facts about electricity and magnets, and James Clerk Maxwell showed how the two forces were connected. These discoveries made it possible for inventors like Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla to create electric lights, motors, and systems to bring power to homes and factories.

As applied science became more important, people began to treat engineering like a serious profession. Britain created the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1818 to support engineers, and schools like ETH Zurich in Switzerland were started in 1855 to train students in using science to build roads, buildings, and machines. This period marked a huge step forward in how people used science to improve the world around them.

20th Century

A replica of the first working transistor, a point-contact transistor invented in 1947

In the early 1900s, companies and countries began building research labs focused on using science to solve real-world problems. These labs, like General Electric’s Research Lab in 1900 and Bell Labs in 1925, played a big role in developing important technology such as the vacuum tube and, later, the transistor in 1947, which helped start the digital age of computers and electronics. Germany also had major science institutes like the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes, which worked on industrial chemistry and physics.

During World War I, applied science was used to help with war efforts. Chemists created synthetic dyes, explosives, and even poison gases. One major scientific method called the Haber-Bosch process, which was first made to help grow crops by making fertilizer, was also used to make explosives. This showed how science can be used for both peaceful and harmful purposes depending on how it’s applied. Between World War I and World War II, scientists kept working on new ideas, especially in airplanes, radios, and medicine. Two major medical discoveries, insulin in 1921 and penicillin in 1928, saved millions of lives and proved how science can quickly improve health care.

World War II led to the biggest science project in history: the Manhattan Project. Over 130,000 people worked to create the atomic bomb. This showed how governments, universities, and companies could work together on massive scientific projects. Other wartime breakthroughs included radar, better fuels, and synthetic rubber. These inventions helped win the war but also led to technologies like microwave ovens and jet engines after the war ended. As the Cold War began, the U.S. and Soviet Union competed in space and technology, leading to new inventions like satellites, rockets, and early computers. The U.S. started NASA in 1958, and the USSR launched the first satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957.

Computers began to grow out of wartime research too. Machines like the ENIAC, built in 1945, helped with calculations and eventually led to commercial computers used in businesses and schools. In the 1950s and 1960s, new ideas like cybernetics (the study of systems and control) and systems engineering helped scientists build robots, guide missiles, and automate factories. At the same time, scientist Norman Borlaug helped lead the Green Revolution, using farming science to grow more food in poor countries. This saved lives but also led to some environmental problems.

After World War II, many countries created public research organizations to support science, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the U.S. In Europe, scientists from different countries worked together at CERN, a research center where, in 1989, a scientist named Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, which changed the way people use the internet. Medicine and biology also changed a lot during this time. Scientists developed ways to grow cells in labs, do organ transplants, and even use DNA to create new medicines. In 1978, the company Genentech made synthetic insulin to treat diabetes, beginning the biotech industry.

As applied science grew, people also started to notice problems. The use of chemicals and pollution led to health and environmental concerns. A famous book called Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962 warned people about the dangers of pesticides like DDT. This helped start environmental science as a new field. New areas of study like materials science, operations research, and bioengineering also became more common, with their own schools, journals, and careers.

21st Century

AlphaFold 2 performance, experiments, and architecture^[19]

In recent years, applied science has changed a lot because of powerful computers, artificial intelligence, and the internet. Scientists now use machines to do complex tasks like analyzing huge amounts of data, running simulations, and solving problems that used to take years. For example, in 2020, a computer program called AlphaFold, created by a company named DeepMind, figured out how proteins fold into shapes, something that had confused scientists for decades. This discovery helps in medicine and biology because protein shapes are key to understanding diseases and creating new drugs.

In medicine, applied science made huge progress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientists used a new type of vaccine called mRNA, which had been studied for years. Companies like Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech quickly used this research to create safe and effective vaccines in record time. Another exciting tool in health science is called CRISPR, which lets scientists edit genes with great precision. It was first proven to work in 2012. It is already helping treat genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia. However, it also raises questions, like whether it is okay to change genes in human embryos, which has led to debates about ethics and safety.

In energy and the environment, applied science is helping people move away from fossil fuels and towards cleaner sources like solar energy and green hydrogen. Batteries for electric cars have become much better, and many countries, including China and the European Union, are investing in clean technology. Climate scientists are also using satellites and computer models to track changes in the Earth’s atmosphere, predict natural disasters, and guide world leaders in making climate decisions. Reports from the IPCC, which help countries plan how to fight climate change, are based on this kind of applied science.

Artificial intelligence is being used in many fields of applied science. For example, in medicine, AI helps doctors read X-rays and scans more accurately. In transportation, it helps power self-driving cars. But there are also concerns, like AI making unfair decisions or replacing too many jobs. This has led to new laws and rules, especially in Europe, to make sure AI is used responsibly and safely.

Applied science is also reaching into space. NASA and private companies like SpaceX are working together to send rockets and spacecraft to the Moon and Mars. The Perseverance rover on Mars is using tools to study rocks and search for signs of life. Back on Earth, new science is also happening with quantum technology, which may lead to super-fast computers and more secure communication. Countries like China and companies like Google are leading in this new area of research.

Farming has also benefited from applied science. Today, farmers can use drones, sensors, and computer programs to watch their fields, use water wisely, and grow more food with fewer resources. Scientists have also made crops like Golden Rice, which has extra vitamins, and drought-resistant plants that can grow better in dry places, helping feed people in poorer and hotter parts of the world.

Learning and sharing science has changed too. Students and scientists can now use online labs, read research papers for free, and join international projects without even leaving their homes. Projects like the Human Cell Atlas and the upgraded Large Hadron Collider at CERN show how countries can work together to solve big problems and learn more about life and the universe.

Characteristics

A Soyuz-FG rocket was made by through applied science (i.e. applying scientific principles to solve a problem)

Applied science is a type of science that focuses on solving real-world problems using scientific ideas and discoveries. It takes what we learn from basic science, like physics, biology, or chemistry, and uses that knowledge to create useful things. For example, when scientists studied tiny organisms (microbiology), it led to the discovery of antibiotics like penicillin that fight infections. Or when they learned how heat and energy work (thermodynamics), it helped engineers design engines and refrigerators.

Unlike pure science, which is mostly about understanding how the world works, applied science is about taking action. It connects different areas of science to create useful tools and technologies. For instance, bioinformatics is a mix of biology, chemistry, and computer science that helps scientists study genes using software. Another example is wearable electronics, like fitness trackers, which use ideas from materials science, physics, and design engineering.

Applied science often works in cycles, where something is tested, improved, and tested again. This process is called iteration. A good example is how solar panels have been improved over time to make them more efficient. Scientists and engineers test new materials, see how they work, make changes, and try again. This back-and-forth process helps turn ideas into better products that people can actually use. To do this kind of work, applied scientists often run experiments in the real world, not just in a lab. They might use computer models to predict how a city will respond to flooding or test new farming methods in the field. This hands-on approach helps them figure out what works and what does not. Organizations like NASA, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and tech companies all use applied science to solve big problems and invent new things.

Applied science is often used to create things that can be shared or used by many people, like vaccines, GPS technology, or AI tools for reading medical scans. To make these useful on a large scale, scientists must work with engineers, designers, government leaders, and even everyday users. These projects often need money, support, and approval from different groups, which can help move things forward, or sometimes slow them down if there are disagreements.

This kind of science is also very connected to businesses and the economy. Many applied science discoveries become patents or new products that are made by companies. Universities and research centers sometimes help turn these ideas into businesses through special programs or partnerships with companies. Instead of just being published in science journals, the results of applied science are often written in reports or guides used by people who need to make decisions, like policymakers or industry experts.

Branches

Offshore platform, Gulf of Mexico, an example of applied science at work

Applied science is a broad area of science that uses what we know from basic science, like physics, biology, and chemistry, to solve real-world problems. Instead of just trying to understand how nature works, applied science takes that knowledge and puts it to use in our everyday lives. There are many different types, or branches, of applied science, and each one focuses on a specific way to make life better, safer, or more efficient. These branches include fields like engineering, medicine, agriculture, computer science, environmental science, and even space exploration.

• One of the biggest areas of applied science is engineering. Engineers use math, physics, and materials science to build things that we use every day. For example, civil engineers design bridges and roads, mechanical engineers build engines and machines, electrical engineers work with electronics and electricity, and biomedical engineers make artificial limbs and medical devices. Each type of engineering solves different kinds of problems but all rely on science to make sure their designs are strong, safe, and work well.
• Medicine is another important branch. Doctors, nurses, and scientists apply biology and chemistry to understand the human body, cure diseases, and help people stay healthy. Medical science includes many specialties like surgery, pediatrics (children’s medicine), psychiatry (mental health), and public health (keeping entire communities healthy). Doctors also use tools like X-rays, MRIs, and genetic tests that come from scientific research.
• Computer science and information technology use math and logic to solve problems with computers. This can include writing programs, protecting data from hackers, building robots, and making apps. These fields are applied when they are used to do useful things like tracking diseases, managing large amounts of information, or creating self-driving cars.
• Agricultural science helps farmers grow more food and keep animals healthy. Scientists in this field study the soil, weather, and genetics of plants and animals. They develop new ways to fight pests, grow crops in hard conditions, and make sure food is safe and plentiful.
• Environmental science looks at how humans affect the planet and how to fix problems like pollution and climate change. This branch uses knowledge from geology, chemistry, and biology to study ecosystems, protect endangered species, and clean up the environment. Scientists might use tools like satellites to monitor the Earth or build models to predict what will happen in the future.
• Other branches include forensic science, which helps solve crimes using evidence like fingerprints and DNA. It also includes pharmaceutical science, which creates medicines and studies how drugs work in the body. There is also health sciences, which help people stay healthy through nutrition, exercise, and disease prevention. Another branch is military science, which helps develop technology for national defense, including radar and drones. Then space science, which helps build rockets and satellites used for exploration and communication.
• Industrial and systems engineering helps companies work better by improving how they make products and manage people and machines. Nanotechnology is another exciting area that involves working with materials so small you cannot see them with the naked eye. It is used in medicine, electronics, and even clothing.
• Even areas like psychology and cognitive science, which study how people think and behave, become applied sciences when used in therapy, improving education, or designing technology that is easier to use.

Methods

A prototype of an electronics project

Applied science uses a clear, organized method to solve real-life problems by turning scientific ideas into useful tools, machines, or systems. This process follows specific steps to make sure the solution is reliable, effective, and helpful. First, scientists or engineers identify a real-world problem that needs fixing, like making better solar panels or finding a safer way to deliver medicine to the brain. Once the problem is understood, they come up with a hypothesis, a possible solution or explanation, based on what they already know from science, such as how energy works or how the body absorbs medicine.

Next, they use design tools to plan and model their ideas before actually building anything. For example, they might use computer programs to simulate how a machine will work or test how a drug will behave in the body. This saves time and money because it helps them figure out what will work best before starting physical experiments. After modeling, they build a prototype or run real-life tests to see if their idea works the way they predicted. This could mean creating a small version of a new device or testing a drug in a lab. They have to follow rules to make sure the testing is safe and legal, especially if it involves people or health-related products.

Then comes data collection and analysis. This means scientists look closely at the results from their tests and use math and statistics to see how well their idea performed. They check if the solution works in different situations and if it can be trusted to work every time. If something does not work perfectly, they make changes and improve it. This step is called optimization. For example, they might adjust how much of a chemical is used in a cleaner to make it more effective but still safe, or change a computer program to make it run faster.

Once the solution is good enough, it moves to the implementation stage. This is where it is tested in the real world, like in homes, hospitals, or factories. Engineers and other experts make sure it fits into real-life settings and meets the needs of users. After it is put to use, scientists still keep track of how well it works. They use feedback and real-world results to make further improvements if needed. This is part of an ongoing process of checking and improving, often done through a system called the PDCA cycle: Plan, Do, Check, Act.

Applied science does not happen in a vacuum, it involves many different fields working together. Scientists also have to think about how their solution affects people, the environment, and the economy. They might work with mathematicians, doctors, businesspeople, or even lawmakers. They also need to follow rules and safety standards, like making sure a medicine meets FDA approval or a machine follows safety codes. Unlike basic science, which focuses on understanding how things work, applied science focuses on using that knowledge to fix real problems, often while working within time, budget, or material limits. Today, many scientists also use artificial intelligence and robots to speed up this process in areas like green energy, medicine, and smart machines.

Education

A high school student explains her engineering project to a judge in Sacramento, California, in 2015.

Applied science education is a special kind of learning that teaches students how to use science to solve real-life problems. It mixes classroom lessons with hands-on practice to help students become skilled professionals in areas like engineering, healthcare, computers, and the environment. Students usually begin learning applied science in high school, where they study subjects like math, physics, chemistry, and biology. Many schools offer STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) or technical programs that include experiments, projects, and teamwork. These programs help students learn how science works in the real world and prepare them for college or jobs right after high school.

After high school, students can choose to go to community colleges for a degree called an Associate of Applied Science (AAS). These programs focus on getting students ready for specific jobs in fields such as medical technology, computer networks, farming science, or machinery. They include classes, hands-on labs, and internships where students get to work in real companies and practice what they have learned. Students who want more education can go on to get a Bachelor of Applied Science (BAS) degree. These programs teach both the science behind the subject and how to use it. For example, students might study energy systems, medical devices, or software engineering. Many programs also include final-year projects where students work in teams to solve a problem or build something useful.

Some students choose to continue with a master's degree in applied science. These advanced programs allow students to specialize in a topic they are interested in, like improving solar batteries or creating better hospital tools. They may do research, write reports, or work with companies on real projects. There are also doctoral degrees in applied science, which are often connected to businesses or government labs. These focus on creating new inventions that can be used in everyday life, like better machines or safer medications.

Because science and technology change quickly, applied science education also includes short courses and certifications to help workers stay up-to-date. This is common in fast-changing fields like cybersecurity, robotics, and biotechnology. People can take these classes online or through job training programs to learn about new tools, rules, or ways of working. Schools often use special equipment and computer programs, such as coding software, 3D design tools, and lab machines, to give students the same experience they would have on the job. Students also learn how to follow safety rules, write technical reports, and work in teams.

Many applied science programs teach students how to work across different fields, like combining biology and computers in bioinformatics or blending electronics and mechanics in mechatronics. Schools and companies often work together to design lessons that match what employers need. Some programs even include job placements or externships where students get real-world experience. Besides technical skills, applied science education also teaches soft skills like communication, teamwork, and time management. These are important when working with others to finish big projects. Governments and global organizations support applied science education because it helps build strong economies and prepares people for the jobs of the future. In growing countries especially, these programs help train workers for careers in technology, energy, and health, improving lives and helping communities grow.

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