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History of Belarus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The history of Belarus traces the development of the Belarusian people and their political institutions from early Slavic settlements to the modern sovereign republic. In the Early Middle Ages, the territory now called Belarus was home to several independent East Slavic principalities, most notably the Principality of Polotsk, which was an important regional power with a high degree of autonomy and influence on local political traditions.[1]
In the 13th century, the Ruthenian principalities of present-day Belarus became the core of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia. Although the state’s political center initially lay in Baltic lands, the East Slavic population soon became dominant, and their language and culture formed the administrative foundation of the Duchy. The main language of administration and law was Ruthenian (Old Belarusian), used in official documents and the Statutes of Lithuania.[2] The Grand Duchy later formed a federal union with Poland, creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, where local distinctiveness was maintained through the separate legal system of the Third Statute, despite increasing Polonization of the nobility.[2]
Following the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, Belarus was incorporated into the Russian Empire, facing periods of Russification and cultural suppression. The distinct Belarusian national movement re-emerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the proclamation of the Belarusian People's Republic in 1918. Amid the turmoil of the Russian Civil War, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was established, becoming a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922.
The country suffered catastrophic devastation and lost a quarter of its population during the German occupation in World War II. In the post-war era, Belarus underwent rapid industrialization and became a founding member of the United Nations. Belarus declared its sovereignty in 1990 and restored full independence in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
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Prehistoric era
Archaeological discoveries show what is now Belarus had human inhabitants during the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages.[3]
Early history
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Early Slavs
Between the 6th and 8th centuries, the migrations and expansion of Slavic peoples across Eastern Europe began. East Slavs settled on the territory of present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, assimilating local Baltic (Yotvingians, Dnieper Balts), Finns (in Russia) and steppe nomads (in Ukraine) already living there, their early ethnic integrations contributed to the gradual differentiation of the East Slavs. These East Slavs, pagan, animistic, agrarian people, had an economy which included trade in agricultural produce, game, furs, honey, beeswax and amber.
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The modern Belarusian ethnos was formed primarily on the basis of the three Slavic tribes—Kryvians, Drehovians, and Radzimians—as well as several Baltic tribes.[4]
The common cultural bond of Eastern Orthodox Christianity and written Church Slavonic (a literary and liturgical Slavic language developed by 8th-century missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius) fostered the emergence of a new geopolitical entity, Kievan Rus' — a loose-knit multi-ethnic network of principalities,[5] established along pre-existing trade routes, with major centers in Novgorod (now in Russia), Polotsk (now in Belarus) and Kiev (now in Ukraine).
Kievan Rus'
Between the 9th and 12th centuries, the Principality of Polotsk (now in northern Belarus) emerged as the dominant center of power in the territory of Belarus, while the Principality of Turov south of it was a lesser power.
The Principality of Polotsk repeatedly asserted its sovereignty in relation to the other centers of Rus', becoming a political capital, the episcopal see of a bishopric and the controller of vassal territories among Balts in the west. The city's Cathedral of the Holy Wisdom (1044–66), though completely rebuilt over the years, remains a symbol of this independent-mindedness, rivaling churches of the same name in Novgorod and Kiev, referring to the original Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (and hence to claims of imperial prestige, authority and sovereignty). Cultural achievements of the Polotsk period include the work of the nun Euphrosyne of Polotsk (1120–1173), who built monasteries, transcribed books, promoted literacy and sponsored art (including local artisan Lazar Bohsha's famous "Cross of Euphrosyne", a national symbol and treasure stolen during World War II), and the prolific, original Church Slavonic sermons and writings of Bishop Kirill of Turov (1130–1182).
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2024) |
In the 13th century, the fragile unity of Kievan Rus' disintegrated due to nomadic incursions from Asia, which climaxed with the Mongol sacking of Kiev in 1240, leaving a geopolitical vacuum in the region. The East Slavs had splintered into a number of independent and competing principalities. Through a combination of dynastic unions, alliances against the Golden Horde, and military consolidation, the Ruthenian principalities in modern Belarus were integrated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This process began around the rule of Mindaugas (1240–1263), whose coronation took place in Novogrudok, a city with a significant Ruthenian population. From the 13th to 15th century, these lands became a core constituent part of the Grand Duchy.[6]
The demographic predominance of Ruthenians (ancestors of modern Belarusians and Ukrainians) in this medieval state ensured that they played a central role in its administration, military, and legal systems. Owing to the prevalence of East Slavs and the Eastern Orthodox faith, the Ruthenian language (known contemporaneously as Rus'ka mova) functioned as the primary language of the chancellery and state documents.[7]
The language, often referred to by scholars as Old Belarusian or Chancery Slavonic, served as the official medium of the Grand Duchy from the reign of Vytautas until the late 17th century, eventually codified in the three Statutes of Lithuania.[8] This period of political breakdown and reorganization also saw the rise of written local vernaculars in place of the literary and liturgical Church Slavonic language, a further stage in the evolving differentiation between the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages.
Several Lithuanian monarchs — the last being Švitrigaila in 1432–36 — relied on the Eastern Orthodox Ruthenian majority, while most monarchs and magnates increasingly came to reflect the opinions of the Roman Catholics.
Construction of Orthodox churches in some parts of present-day Belarus had been initially prohibited, as was the case in Vitebsk in 1480. On the other hand, further unification of the mostly Orthodox Grand Duchy with mostly Catholic Poland led to liberalization and a partial solving of the religious problem. In 1511, King and Grand Duke Sigismund I the Old granted the Orthodox clergy an autonomy previously enjoyed only by Catholic clergy. The privilege was enhanced in 1531, when the Orthodox church was no longer responsible to the Catholic bishop and instead the metropolitan was responsible only to the sobor of eight Orthodox bishops, the Grand Duke and the Patriarch of Constantinople. The privilege also extended the jurisdiction of the Orthodox hierarchy over all Orthodox people.[9]
In such circumstances, a vibrant Ruthenian culture flourished, mostly in the major cities of present-day Belarus.[10] The period saw significant literary and intellectual development. In 1517, Francysk Skaryna of Polotsk began publishing the Bible in the Old Belarusian language, becoming one of the first book printers in Eastern Europe.[11] The Statutes of Lithuania (1529, 1566, and 1588), codified in the Ruthenian language, represented the apex of legal theory in the region at the time. Additionally, the era produced substantial polemical religious literature and chronicles, such as the Bychowiec Chronicle.
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Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
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| This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2024) |
The Union of Lublin in 1569 led to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to become an influential player in European politics and the largest multinational state in Europe. While present-day Ukraine and Podlaskie became subjects of the Polish Crown, present-day Belarusian territories were still regarded as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The new polity was dominated by densely populated Poland, which had 134 representatives in the Sejm as compared to 46 representatives from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained significant autonomy, maintaining its own army, treasury, and legal system. This distinctiveness was codified in the Statutes of Lithuania, particularly the Third Statute of 1588. Drafted in the Ruthenian language, this legal code stood as a symbol of the Grand Duchy's sovereignty, remaining the supreme law of the land until 1840, long after the territory was annexed by Russia.[12] Of the territory of present-day Belarus, Mogilev was the largest urban centre, followed by Vitebsk, Polotsk, Pinsk, Slutsk, and Brest, whose population exceeded 10,000. In addition, Vilna (Vilnius), the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, also had a significant Ruthenian population.[13]
With time, the ethnic pattern did not evolve much. Throughout their existence as a separate culture, Ruthenians formed in most cases the rural population, with power held by the local szlachta and boyars, often of Lithuanian, Polish or Russian descent. By this time, a significant Jewish presence had also formed in this region of German Jews fleeing persecution from the Northern and Baltic Crusaders. Since the Union of Horodlo of 1413, the local nobility was assimilated into the traditional clan system by means of the formal procedure of adoption by the szlachta (Polish gentry).[14] Eventually, it formed a significant part of the szlachta. Initially[when?] mostly Ruthenian and Orthodox,[citation needed] with time most of them became polonized. This was especially true for major magnate families, such as the Sapieha and Radziwiłł clans. However, while these elites increasingly adopted the Polish language and Catholicism, they maintained a distinct "Litvin" political identity, fiercely defending the autonomy of the Grand Duchy against the Polish Crown.[15] This dual identity is often described by the Latin phrase Gente Ruthenus, natione Polonus ("of Ruthenian blood, of Polish political nationality").[16]
Also, with time religious conflicts started to arise. The gentry with time started to adopt Catholicism while the common people by large remained faithful to Eastern Orthodoxy. Initially the Warsaw Compact of 1573 codified the preexisting freedom of worship. However, the rule of an ultra-Catholic King Sigismund III Vasa was marked by numerous attempts to spread Catholicism, mostly through his support for counterreformation and the Jesuits. Possibly to avoid such conflicts, in 1595 the Orthodox hierarchs of Kiev signed the Union of Brest, breaking their links with the Patriarch of Constantinople and placing themselves under the Pope. Although the union was generally supported by most local Orthodox bishops and the king himself, it was opposed by some prominent nobles and, more importantly, by the nascent Cossack movement. This led to a series of conflicts and rebellions against the local authorities. The first of such happened in 1595, when the Cossack insurgents under Severyn Nalyvaiko took the towns of Slutsk and Mogilev and executed Polish magistrates there. Other such clashes took place in Mogilev (1606–10), Vitebsk (1623), and Polotsk (1623, 1633).[17] This left the population of the Grand Duchy divided between Greek Catholic and Greek Orthodox parts. At the same time, after the schism in the Orthodox Church (Raskol), some Old Believers migrated west, seeking refuge in the Rzeczpospolita, which allowed them to freely practice their faith.[18]
From 1569, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth suffered a series of Tatar raids, the goal of which was to loot, pillage and capture slaves into jasyr. The borderland area to the south-east was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century. Some researchers estimate that altogether more than 3 million people, predominantly Ukrainians but also Russians, Belarusians and Poles, were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate.[citation needed]
Until the late 17th century, the Old Belarusian language served as the official chancery language of the Grand Duchy. In 1696, the General Confederation of Warsaw passed the Coaequatio Jurium (Equalization of Rights), which mandated that all official documents henceforth be written in Polish, marking the formal end of Ruthenian as a language of administration.[19] However, the spoken dialects continued to be the primary language of significant part of the population, preserving the linguistic basis for the modern Belarusian nation.[20]Both Polish and Ruthenian cultures gained a major cultural centre with the foundation of the Academy of Vilna. At the same time, the Belarusian lands entered a period of economic growth, with the formation of numerous towns that served as centers of trade on the east–west routes.
Eventually, by 1795, Poland was partitioned by its neighbors. Thus, a new period in Belarusian history began, with all its lands annexed by the Russian Empire.
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Russian Empire
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Under Russian administration, the territory of Belarus was divided into the governorates (guberniyas) of Minsk, Vitebsk, Mogilev, and Grodno. Belarusians were active in the guerrilla movement against Napoleon's occupation.[21] With Napoleon's defeat, Belarus again became a part of Imperial Russia and its guberniyas constituted part of the Northwestern Krai.
The imperial authorities initiated a policy of "depolonization," which evolved into forced Russification. A pivotal moment was the Synod of Polotsk in 1839, which abolished the Ruthenian Uniate Church (Greek Catholic) and forcibly converted over 1.5 million Belarusians to the Russian Orthodox Church, cutting a key link to the West and removing a primary marker of distinct Belarusian identity.[22]
The independence seeking 1830 and 1863 uprisings were subdued by government forces. While the 1830 uprising was largely driven by the Polish nobility, the 1863 uprising in Belarus featured a distinct peasant character led by Kastuś Kalinoŭski.[23]
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Although under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed due to policies of Russification, the 19th century signifies the rise of the modern Belarusian nation and self-confidence. A number of authors started publishing in the Belarusian language, including Jan Czeczot, Władysław Syrokomla and Konstanty Kalinowski.
In 1862-1863 Kalinowski published the first newspaper in the modern Belarusian language, Mużyckaja prauda (Peasants' Truth), in a Latin script. Kalinowski's writings are widely regarded as the first articulation of a modern Belarusian political nation, distinct from both Poland and Russia.[24]
In the second half of the 19th century, the Belarusian economy, like that of the entire Europe, was experiencing significant growth due to the spread of the Industrial Revolution to Eastern Europe,[25] particularly after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 and the construction of railways in the late 19th century (with Minsk, Vitebsk, Grodno, Pinsk and Gomel becoming significant industrial centres.[26]
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20th century
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Belarusian People's Republic
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Following the collapse of the Russian Empire and the capture of Minsk by German troops on 21 February 1918, the Belarusian national movement seized the opportunity to assert statehood. During this period of German occupation, Belarusian culture experienced a revival; the administration permitted Belarusian-language schools, which had been banned under the Tsarist regime, leading to a flourishing of national education and publishing.[27]
On 25 March 1918, the Rada (Council) proclaimed the independence of the Belarusian People's Republic (BNR) through the Third Constituent Charter.[28] While the BNR's de facto sovereignty was severely limited by the German military presence (under the Mitteleuropa plan) and the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the republic established the fundamental symbols of the Belarusian state—including the white-red-white flag and the Pahonia emblem—and issued citizenship documents.[27] Following the German withdrawal in December 1918, the Rada was forced into exile by the advancing Red Army, relocating successively to Kaunas, Berlin, and Prague.[2]
Soviet Republics and the Polish–Soviet Conflict
To counter the national independence movement of the BNR, the Bolsheviks established their own political entities on Belarusian territory. On 1 January 1919, the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (SSRB) was proclaimed in Smolensk, and its capital was moved to Minsk on 5 January following the withdrawal of German forces.[27]
However, largely for geopolitical reasons during the expanding conflicts in the region, the SSRB was short-lived. On 27 February 1919, it was merged with the Lithuanian SSR to form the Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Litbel), with its capital in Vilnius.[2] This entity was intended to serve as a buffer state and to attract the support of Lithuanians and Belarusians against the re-emerging Polish state.[29]
The territory became a primary battleground of the Polish–Soviet War. Polish forces, seeking to restore the historical Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth borders, advanced eastward. After Polish troops captured Vilnius on 19 April 1919, the Litbel capital was relocated to Minsk. As the Polish offensive continued, capturing Minsk on 8 August 1919 during Operation Minsk, the Soviet leadership effectively dissolved Litbel.[2] The region remained a contested theater of war between Polish and Soviet forces until the establishment of a new Soviet Belarusian republic in 1920.
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity within a territory now split between modern Lithuania and Belarus. It was the last attempt to restore Lithuania in the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following the staged rebellion of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of the Polish Army under Lucjan Żeligowski. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vilna (Lithuanian: Vilnius, Polish: Wilno), for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area.[30] After a variety of delays, a disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal Józef Piłsudski's confederation plans by Polish ally.[31]
Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus
Some time in 1918 or 1919, Sergiusz Piasecki returned to Belarus, joining Belarusian anti-Soviet units, the "Green Oak" (in Polish, Zielony Dąb), led by Ataman Wiaczesław Adamowicz (pseudonym: J. Dziergacz). When on 8 August 1919, the Polish Army captured Minsk, Adamowicz decided to work with them. Thus Belarusian units were created, and Piasecki was transferred to a Warsaw school of infantry cadets. In the summer of 1920, during the Polish–Soviet War, Piasecki fought in the Battle of Radzymin.
The frontiers between Poland, which had established an independent government after World War I, and the former Russian Empire were not recognized by the League of Nations. Poland's Józef Piłsudski, who envisioned the formation of an Intermarium federation as a Central and East European bloc that would be a bulwark against Germany to the west and Russia to the east, carried out a Kiev offensive into Ukraine in 1920. This met with a Red Army counter-offensive that drove into Polish territory almost to Warsaw, Minsk itself was re-captured by the Soviet Red Army on 11 July 1920 and a new Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was declared on 31 July 1920. Piłsudski, however, halted the Soviet advance at the Battle of Warsaw and resumed his eastward offensive. Finally the Treaty of Riga, ending the Polish–Soviet War, divided Belarus between Poland and Soviet Russia. Over the next two years, the People's Republic of Belarus prepared a national uprising, ceasing the preparations only when the League of Nations recognized the Soviet Union's western borders on 15 March 1923. The Soviets terrorised Western Belarus, the most radical case being Soviet raid on Stołpce. Poland created Border Protection Corps in 1924.
The Polish part of Belarus was subject to Polonization policies (especially in the 1930s), while the Soviet Belarus was one of the original republics which formed the USSR. For several years, the national culture and language enjoyed a significant boost of revival in the Soviet Belarus[citation needed]. A Polish Autonomous District was also formed. This was however soon ended during the Great Purge, when almost all prominent Belarusian national intelligentsia were executed, many of them buried in Kurapaty. Thousands were deported to Asia. As the result of Polish operation of the NKVD tens of thousands people of many nationalities were killed. Belarusian orthography was Russified in 1933 and use of Belarusian language was discouraged as exhibiting anti-soviet attitude.[32]
In West Belarus, up to 30,000 families of Polish veterans (osadniks) were settled in the lands formerly belonging to the Russian tsar family and Russian aristocracy.[33] Belarusian representation in Polish parliament was reduced as a result of the 1930 elections. Since the early 1930s, the Polish government introduced a set of policies designed to Polonize all minorities (Belarusians, Ukrainians, Jews, etc.)[citation needed]. The usage of Belarusian language was discouraged and the Belarusian schools were facing severe financial problems.
However, the Belarusian population actively resisted these assimilation efforts through political organization. The largest political party in West Belarus was the Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union (known as the Hromada), founded in 1925. With over 100,000 members, it demanded autonomy for Western Belarus and land reform. Fearing its influence, the Polish authorities banned the Hromada in 1927 and arrested its leaders, including Branislaw Tarashkyevich, the author of the first standardized Belarusian grammar.[34] By 1939, there was neither a single Belarusian official organisation in Poland nor a single exclusively Belarusian school (with only 44 schools teaching Belarusian language left).[35]
World War II and the Nazi Occupation
When the Soviet Union invaded Poland on September 17, 1939, following the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocol, Western Byelorussia, which was part of Poland, is included in the BSSR. Similarly to the times of German occupation during World War I, Belarusian language and Soviet culture enjoyed relative prosperity in this short period. Already in October 1940, over 75% of schools used the Belarusian language, also in the regions where no Belarus people lived, e.g. around Łomża, what was Ruthenization.[36] Western Belarus was sovietised, tens of thousands were imprisoned in Gulag camps, exiled and many were executed as "enemies of the people". The victims were mostly Polish and Jewish.[37][38]
After twenty months of Soviet rule, Nazi Germany and its Axis allies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Soviet authorities immediately evacuated about 20% of the population of Belarus, killed thousands of prisoners and destroyed all the food supplies.[39] The country suffered particularly heavily during the fighting and the German occupation. Minsk was captured by the Germans on 28 June 1941. Following bloody encirclement battles, all of the present-day Belarus territory was occupied by the Germans by the end of August 1941.
During World War II, the Nazis attempted to establish a puppet Belarusian government, Belarusian Central Rada, with the symbolics similar to BNR. In reality, however, the Germans imposed a brutal racist regime, burning down some 9,000 Belarusian villages, deporting some 380,000 people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of thousands of civilians more. Local police took part in many of those crimes. Almost the whole, previously very numerous, Jewish populations of Belarus that did not evacuate were killed. One of the first uprisings of a Jewish ghetto against the Nazis occurred in 1942 in Belarus, in the small town of Lakhva.
Since the early days of the occupation, a powerful and increasingly well-coordinated Belarusian resistance movement emerged. Hiding in the woods and swamps, the partisans inflicted heavy damage to German supply lines and communications, disrupting railway tracks, bridges, telegraph wires, attacking supply depots, fuel dumps and transports and ambushing German soldiers. Not all anti-German partisans were pro-Soviet.[40] In the largest[citation needed] partisan sabotage action of the entire Second World War, the so-called Asipovichy diversion of 30 July 1943 four German trains with supplies and Tiger tanks were destroyed. To fight partisan activity, the Germans had to withdraw considerable forces behind their front line. On 22 June 1944 the huge Soviet offensive Operation Bagration was launched, Minsk was re-captured on 3 July 1944, and all of Belarus was regained by the end of August. Hundred thousand of Poles were expelled after 1944. As part of the Nazis' effort to combat the enormous Belarusian resistance during World War II, special units of local collaborationists were trained by the SS's Otto Skorzeny to infiltrate the Soviet rear. In 1944 thirty Belarusians (known as Čorny Kot (Black Cat) and personally led by Michał Vituška) were airdropped by the Luftwaffe behind the lines of the Red Army, which had already liberated Belarus during Operation Bagration. They experienced some initial success due to disorganization in the rear of the Red Army, and some other German-trained Belarusian nationalist units also slipped through the Białowieża Forest in 1945. The NKVD, however, had already infiltrated these units. Vituška himself was hunted down, captured and executed, although he continued to live on in Belarusian nationalist hagiography.[41]
In total, Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population in World War II including practically all its intellectual elite. About 9,200 villages and 1.2 million houses were destroyed. The major towns of Minsk and Vitsebsk lost over 80% of their buildings and city infrastructure. For the defence against the Germans, and the tenacity during the German occupation, the capital Minsk was awarded the title Hero City after the war. The fortress of Brest was awarded the title Hero-Fortress.
Post-war BSSR
After the end of War in 1945, Belarus became one of the founding members of the United Nations Organisation. Joining Belarus was the Soviet Union itself and another republic Ukraine. In exchange for Belarus and Ukraine joining the UN, the United States had the right to seek two more votes, a right that has never been exercised.[42]
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More than 200,000 ethnic Poles left or were expelled to Poland in late 1940s and late 1950s, some killed by the NKVD or deported to Siberia.[citation needed][43] Armia Krajowa and post-AK resistance was the strongest in the Grodno, Vawkavysk, Lida and Shchuchyn regions.[44]
The Belarusian economy was completely devastated by the events of the war. Most of the industry, including whole production plants were removed either to Russia or Germany. Industrial production of Belarus in 1945 amounted for less than 20% of its pre-war size. Most of the factories evacuated to Russia, with several spectacular exceptions, were not returned to Belarus after 1945. During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded the BSSR's economy, with control always exerted exclusively from Moscow. During this time, Belarus became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR. Huge industrial objects like the BelAZ, MAZ, and the Minsk Tractor Plant were built in the country. The increase in jobs resulted in a huge immigrant population of Russians in Belarus. Russian became the official language of administration and the peasant class, which traditionally was the base for Belarusian nation, ceased to exist.[32]
Perestroika and Glasnost
On 26 April 1986, the Chernobyl disaster occurred at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine situated close to the border with Belarus. It is regarded as the worst nuclear accident in the history of nuclear power. It produced a plume of radioactive debris that drifted over parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and Scandinavia. Large areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia were contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of roughly 200,000 people. About 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus. The effects of the Chernobyl accident in Belarus were dramatic: about 50,000 km2 (or about a quarter of the territory of Belarus) formerly populated by 2.2 million people (or a fifth of the Belarusian population) now require permanent radioactive monitoring (after receiving doses over 37 kBq/m2 of caesium-137). 135,000 persons were permanently resettled and many more were resettled temporarily. After 10 years since the accident, the occurrences of thyroid cancer among children increased fifteenfold (the sharp rise started in about four years after the accident).[45]
On 27 July 1990, Belarus declared its national sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet Union. Around that time, Stanislav Shushkevich became the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus.
On 25 August 1991, after the failure of the August Coup in Moscow, Belarus declared full independence from the USSR by granting the declaration of state sovereignty a constitutional status that it did not have before.[46]
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Republic of Belarus
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Independent country and the Commonwealth
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On 8 December 1991, Shushkevich met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha, to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Post-Soviet countries have signed a series of treaties and agreements to settle the legacy of the former Soviet Union multilaterally and bilaterally.
Lukashenko era
A new Belarusian constitution enacted in early 1994 paved the way for the first democratic presidential election on 23 June and 10 July. Alexander Lukashenko was elected president of Belarus. Having assumed the rights and responsibilities of the Soviet Union on the territory of Byelarus,[47] in December 1994 Lukashenko signed the Budapest Memorandum along with Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States acting as guarantors and thereby denuclearized the nation.[48][49][50][51]
The 1996 referendum resulted in amendments to the constitution that removed key powers from the parliament.
In 1999 opposition leaders Yury Zacharanka and Viktar Hanchar disappeared and were presumably killed. In 2001, Lukashenko was re-elected as president in elections described as undemocratic by Western observers. At the same time, the west began criticizing him as authoritarian. In 2006, Lukashenko was once again re-elected in presidential elections again criticized as flawed by most European Union countries.
In 2010, Lukashenko was re-elected once again in presidential elections which were again described as falsified by most EU countries and organizations such as the OSCE. A peaceful protest against the electoral flaws turned into a riot when demonstrators tried to storm a government building. The police used batons to quell the riot. Seven presidential candidates and hundreds of rioters were arrested by KGB.[52]
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Lukashenko's disputed victory in the country's 2020 presidential election led to widespread allegations of vote rigging, which strongly amplified anti-government protests, the largest during his rule.[53] Protesters have faced violent persecution by the authorities. A statement by the United Nations Human Rights Office on 1 September cited more than 450 documented cases of torture and ill-treatment of detainees, as well as reports of sexual abuse and rape.[54] Several protesters were killed. Following the contested election, Lukashenko is not recognized by the United Kingdom, the European Union, or the United States as the legitimate president of Belarus.[55][56]
On 23 May 2021, Ryanair Flight 4978 was diverted by the Belarusian government to Minsk National Airport, where two of its passengers, opposition activist and former editor-in-chief of the Telegram channel Nexta Roman Protasevich and his girlfriend Sofia Sapega, were arrested by authorities.[57] In summer of the same year, Belarusian authorities organized the 2021–2022 Belarus–European Union border crisis consisting of an influx of tens of thousands of immigrants, primarily from Iraqi Kurdistan, to Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland via those countries' borders with Belarus.[58]
Belarus allowed its territory to be used by the Russian army in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine to stage and launch forces from the north into Ukraine.[59]
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