Islamophobic trope

Islamophobic tropes, also known as anti-Muslim tropes, are sensational reports, misrepresentations, or fabrications, regarding Muslims as an ethnicity or Islam as a religion.^[1]

Since the 20th century, malicious allegations about Muslims have increasingly recurred as a motif in Islamophobic tropes, often taking the form of libels, stereotypes, or conspiracy theories. These tropes typically portray Muslims as violent, oppressive, or inherently extremist, with some also featuring the denial or trivialization of historical injustices against Muslim communities. These stereotypes have contributed to discrimination, hate crimes, and the systemic marginalization of Muslims throughout history.^[2]

During the colonial era, European powers advanced the stereotype of Muslims as inherently despotic and backward to legitimize imperial rule over Muslim-majority lands. These tropes often depicted Islam as incompatible with modernity and democracy, reinforcing policies of cultural suppression and economic exploitation.^[3]

In the 20th and 21st centuries, Islamophobic narratives evolved into modern conspiracy theories, particularly the notion that Muslims are attempting to "Islamize" the Western world or that they constitute a secret fifth column plotting against non-Muslim societies. The rise of Islamist extremist groups in recent decades has been used to justify broad generalizations about Muslims as inherently violent or sympathetic to terrorism. These tropes have fueled policies such as surveillance of Muslim communities, restrictions on religious practices (including hijab bans), and outright bans on Muslim immigration in some countries.^[4]

Most contemporary Islamophobic tropes involve either the exaggeration of violence committed by Muslims or the denial or trivialization of violence against Muslims.^[5] Common examples include the claim that Muslims "play the victim" to manipulate public perception, or that Islam is uniquely responsible for terrorism while ignoring or downplaying violence committed by non-Muslims. In recent years, the denial or justification of human rights abuses against Muslims, such as the persecution of the Rohingya in Myanmar or the internment of Uyghurs in China, has been a key component of Islamophobic discourse.^{[citation needed]}

Demography and migration tropes and conspiracy theories

See also: Demographic jihad and Istijarah

White genocide conspiracy theory

Further information: White genocide conspiracy theory, White nationalism, and SPLC list of white nationalist groups

The white genocide conspiracy theory^[6] term "Great Replacement" was created by a Frenchman called Renaud Camus in 2011 identifying immigration policies as the main issue affecting the shift in the demographics of France.^[7]

Since the early 21st century, particularly following the European migrant crisis of 2015, the White genocide conspiracy theory has increasingly targeted Muslims. The theory falsely claims that Muslim immigration and higher birth rates are part of a coordinated effort to replace White populations in Europe and North America. This narrative is often fueled by far-right figures, who depict Muslim migrants as an existential threat to Western civilization, framing their presence as an "invasion" rather than natural demographic shifts caused by conflict, globalization, and labor migration.^[8]

Much of this rhetoric is rooted in fears about cultural and religious transformation, with Islam portrayed as inherently incompatible with Western values. Proponents of the conspiracy theory often link it to broader Islamophobic tropes, including the belief that Muslims refuse to assimilate and aim to impose Islamic law (sharia) on non-Muslim societies.^[9]

Belief in the white genocide theory has been linked to acts of terrorism targeting Muslim communities. Notable incidents include the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand, where the attacker explicitly cited the Great Replacement conspiracy theory in his manifesto before killing 51 worshippers. Other violent attacks motivated by similar ideology include the 2017 Quebec City mosque shooting and the 2021 London, Ontario truck attack, both of which targeted Muslim families.^[10][11]

Versions that include non-Muslims

Further information: Antisemitic conspiracy theories, Great Replacement conspiracy theory, and South African farm attacks

Variations of the trope have also been used against other groups including Jews and black South Africans. These versions of the conspiracy theory often also include Islamophobia or are used in attempts to justify policies biased against Muslim immigrants.^[12][13]

In the Great Replacement conspiracy theory, Jews are often characterised as the masterminds while the immigrants are Muslims or another group.^[12] Some variations of the theory claim that Western political elites (often described as Jewish or implied to be such) are deliberately enabling mass Muslim immigration to dilute national identities, a narrative echoed in slogans such as the "Great Replacement", popularized by figures like French writer Renaud Camus.^[14][12]

Australia

See also: 2005 Cronulla riots and § Halal conspiracy theories

Immigration politics

Further information: Islamophobia in Australia, South Africans in Australia, Pacific Solution, and Operation Sovereign Borders

Another variant of the white genocide story claimed that violent robberies of South African farmers were an attempt to commit genocide against South Africa's white minority.^{[15][16][17][18]} Some people who claim this version of the story are also intensely Islamophobic, such as Matthew Heimbach from the "Youth for Western Civilization" and right-wing Australian politician Peter Dutton.^[19][13] In 2018 Dutton tried to argue that white South Africans should be given asylum status in Australia, despite Dutton being in favour of Australia's extremely harsh treatment of other asylum seekers.^[13][20][21] The asylum seekers excluded and mistreated by Australia's harshest immigration politics were frequently Muslim, but generally referred to by political dog whistles referring to people coming by boat.^[22] Dutton personally argued against Palestinian asylum seekers being given assistance during the Gaza war, despite them already receiving generally unfavorable treatment.^[23] Dutton described previous Lebanese immigration as a "mistake".^[24]

United Kingdom

See also: 2024 United Kingdom riots

"Stop the boats"

Main articles: Stop the boats and Boat people

The "stop the boats" dog whistle has spread from Australia to the United Kingdom.^[25] It is an Islamophobic trope in both countries. “Stop the boats” was used as an immigration policy slogan by the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom under Rishi Sunak's leadership.^[26] The slogan was later chanted by anti-Muslim mobs during the 2024 United Kingdom riots.^[26]

Grooming gangs

Main article: Grooming gangs scandal

Far-right politicians and media outlets have promoted the trope of "Muslim grooming gangs" in the United Kingdom, selectively amplifying cases involving Muslim perpetrators of Pakistani descent while downplaying or ignoring similar crimes committed by non-Muslims.^[27]

India

Further information: Hindutva

See also: Godi media

'Ghazwa-e-Hind' is a similar conspiracy theory which claims an alleged strategy by Indian Muslims to replace Hindus as the dominant religious demographic group in India by virtue of their fertility rates and polygamy, leading to overpopulation of Muslims in order to facilitate annexation of India by its hostile Muslim-majority neighbour.^[tone]

Greater Bangladesh is a similar conspiracy theory employed by Hindu nationalists in East and Northeast India, alleging a ploy by the Muslim majority Bangladesh to annex neighbouring non-Muslim majority Indian states by promoting illegal infiltration of Bengali Muslims into them, thereby changing the demographics in those areas, which in turn had led to anti-Bengali sentiment in Northeast India and ethnic conflicts (see Assam Movement and Nellie massacre).^{[citation needed]}

Love jihad conspiracy theory

Main article: Love jihad conspiracy theory

"Love jihad" is an Islamophobic Hindu nationalist conspiracy theory in India promoted by far-right Hindutva activists, alleging Muslim men feign love for Hindu women in order to make them convert to Islam and produce Muslim offspring, thereby skewing the demographics in favour of Islam.^[28][29] Occasionally the genders are reversed and Muslim women are accused of causing Hindu men to convert, citing the historical examples of Kalapahad and Tansen.^[30]

Gaming jihad and mazhar jihad

'Gaming jihad' and 'mazhar jihad' are Islamophobic dog-whistles coined by Indian pro-BJP journalist Sudhir Chaudhary in order to advocate for a social boycott of Muslims. The former alleges that Muslims are luring Generation Z Hindu teenagers to convert to Islam through interactions held on online gaming platforms like Twitch and Discord.^[31] The latter alleges are Muslims are gradually taking over public properties and land owned by Hindus through illegal encroachment to convert them into mausoleums.^[32]

Other conspiracy theories

Halal certificate stamp on a German salami package. The text in the logo says in Arabic: حَلال, romanized: Halal.

See also: antisemitic conspiracy theories

Halal conspiracy theories

See also: Halal conspiracy theories and Kosher tax conspiracy theory

Halal conspiracy theories revolve around a series of Islamophobic conspiracy theories and hoaxes regarding halal certification in products such as food, beverages and cosmetics.^[33][34] The claims usually made include that the sale of halal-certified goods in stores is a precursor to the terrorization^{[clarification needed]} or institution of Sharia law in a non-Muslim country,^[35][36] that the fees paid by companies for halal certification fund Islamic terrorism,^[37][38][39] that halal slaughter for meat is cruel, unhygienic or constitutes as animal sacrifice,^[33][39][40] among others. The spread of these claims has resulted in boycotts and harassment campaigns against businesses who sell halal-certified products, most notably in Australia and India,^[37][39][41] although anti-halal boycott movements also exist in Denmark, France, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.^[33][42]

Iraqi involvement in September 11 attacks

Further information: United States invasion of Iraq, Rationale for the Iraq war, Iraq and weapons of mass destruction, and Curveball (informant)

Pallywood

Main articles: Pallywood and Israeli public diplomacy in the Gaza war

"Pallywood" (a portmanteau of "Palestine" and "Hollywood") is a disinformation campaign used to falsely accuse Palestinians for faking suffering and civilian deaths during their conflict with Israel.^[43][44][45] The term came into currency following the killing of Muhammad al-Durrah in 2000 during the Second Intifada, involving a challenge to the veracity of photographic evidence.^[46] Israeli pundits have used the term to dismiss videos showing Israeli violence or denial of Palestinian suffering.^[44] During the Gaza war, it has been used to dismiss Palestinian suffering such as claiming dead Palestinian babies are fake dolls,^[47][48][49] and has been described by some authors as a conspiracy theory.^[49][48][50] The term has been used as a propaganda and disinformation tool by Israeli government officials.^[43]

Muslim collusion with the Nazis

See also: anti-Palestinianism, anti-Palestinianism during the Gaza war, The Holocaust and the Nakba, Holocaust revisionism, and Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world § Views on historical representation

Benjamin Netanyahu, Prime Minister of Israel and leader of the Likud party,^[a] has been accused of Holocaust revisionism for his claim that the Palestinian Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, gave Hitler the idea for The Final Solution.^{[51][52][53][54]} The cause of the Holocaust was European antisemitism, not external influences from the Middle East.^[51] However, Husseini did personally meet with and support Hitler and Nazism. The New York Times (NYT) reported that Netanyahu retracted the remarks, but that in the process he "went further".^[55] The NYT pointed out that he directly contradicted a speech he gave earlier that month.^[55][56][b] In 2022, there was a heated dispute about the display of a photo of the Mufti and Hitler in Yad Vashem.^[61][62] Netanyahu and other leaders of the Likud party have repeatedly compared Palestinians to Nazis to justify the preemptive use of deadly force, sometimes on a massive scale.^{[63][better source needed]}

Recycling of antisemitic and Nazi tropes

During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, in the aftermath of a Tablighi Jamaat event in Delhi being classified as a superspreader of the disease, many social media accounts operated by the BJP IT cell spread fake news about Muslim vegetable sellers and fruit vendors selling food items contaminated with their own saliva or other bodily fluids in an attempt to deliberately spread the viral infection among Hindus in an attempted act of biological terrorism, drawing on the medieval European antisemitic trope of well-poisoning. This accusation led to incidents of police vigilantism against Muslim shop owners in BJP-ruled Uttar Pradesh, purportedly on the orders of its Chief Minister, the hardliner Hindutva cleric Yogi Adityanath.^[64]

In 2022, BJP leader and Assamese Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma accused the Muslim minority of 'flood jihad'; orchestrating man-made floods in the low-lying Hindu-majority areas of the Brahmaputra Valley by deliberately accelerating deforestation and environmental degradation in the surrounding mountains of Meghalaya,^[65][66][67] similar to how in 2018, a lawmaker from Washington DC accused the Rothschild family of causing heavy snowfall in the area via 'climate manipulation'.^[68]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were some isolated incidents of Muslims being denied medical aid by Hindu medical professionals in some BJP ruled states,^[69][70] similar to how German doctors were prohibited from treating Jewish patients. Calls for the boycott of Muslim businesses by Hindus on grounds of their alleged disloyalty to the country and alleged earlier calls by some Muslim clerics to boycott Hindu businesses^[71][72] (similar to how Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses was instituted in response to Jewish boycott of German goods) have also been raised by BJP leaders in recent times.^{[73][74][75][76]}

In 2025, Hindu godman and entrepreneur Baba Ramdev, while promoting products of his brand, called upon Hindus to boycott the popular sharbat brand Rooh Afza (owned by a Muslim entrepreneur family) by spreading rumors pertaining to 'sharbat jihad', alleging that the brand's Muslim owners are using their sales revenue to undermine Hindu culture by financing the construction of mosques and madrasas.^[77][78][79]

Lying to non-Muslims

Main articles: Taqiyya and shaheeda

The taqiyya trope is a widespread Islamophobic misrepresentation that falsely claims Muslims have a religious obligation to deceive non-Muslims. This conspiracy theory is often used to argue that Muslims cannot be trusted, particularly in political, legal, and security contexts. The trope has been widely spread by far-right figures, anti-Muslim activists, and some political leaders to justify discrimination against Muslims and opposition to their participation in public life.^[80]

The Islamic concept of taqiyya originates from early Islamic history and refers to a religious dispensation allowing Muslims to conceal their faith when facing extreme persecution or mortal danger. Historically, it was primarily practiced by Shia Muslims in situations where revealing their religious beliefs could result in death or oppression. Despite its limited historical application, Islamophobic discourse has distorted taqiyya into a blanket accusation that all Muslims are permitted—or even required—to lie to non-Muslims for strategic advantage.^[81] Other religious have also concealed their faith at times of persecution.^{[82][example needed]}

The taqiyya trope has been weaponized in political discourse, particularly in Western countries, to cast doubt on the sincerity of Muslim politicians, activists, and community leaders. This claim has been used to justify exclusionary policies and public suspicion toward Muslims in politics, including opposition to the appointment of Muslim public officials in the United States and Europe.^[83][84]

The trope has also been widely circulated on social media and far-right websites, where it is used to dismiss any peaceful or conciliatory statements by Muslim individuals as deceptive. Islamophobic groups such as Britain First, ACT for America, and the Identitarian movement have promoted taqiyya as proof that Muslims are waging a "stealth jihad" to infiltrate Western institutions.^[85]

Belief in the taqiyya trope has fueled hate crimes and vigilante violence against Muslims. In 2015, an anti-Muslim extremist in the U.S. cited taqiyya as a justification for harassing Muslim store owners, claiming they were "lying about being peaceful." In 2017, far-right groups in Germany spread the false claim that Muslim refugees were using taqiyya to disguise their true extremist beliefs, leading to increased attacks on asylum seekers.^[86][87]

Muslims as violent figures

See also: Islam and violence, Islamic terrorism, and definition of terrorism

The stereotype that Muslims are inherently violent or predisposed to terrorism is a common Islamophobic trope, often used to justify discrimination, surveillance, and restrictive policies against Muslim communities.^[88] This belief is frequently reinforced through selective reporting, media bias, and decontextualized interpretations of Islamic texts. The trope falsely portrays Islam as a uniquely violent religion, despite historical and contemporary violence committed by individuals of various religious and ideological backgrounds.^[89]

Terrorist attacks committed by Muslims receive far more media coverage than those by non-Muslims, even when controlling for target type, number of fatalities, and other factors.^[90][91] This media coverage is often followed by violence against Muslims, including at locations a long way away from the terror attack.^[92] Political leaders have also played a role in spreading this narrative, with figures such as Donald Trump, during his first term as U.S. President, advocating for a Muslim ban by citing terrorism concerns.^[93][94] Despite far-right extremists being a more serious terrorist threat in the United States.^[95][96]

This trope has been used to justify increased surveillance and profiling of Muslim communities. The NYPD's post-9/11 surveillance program specifically targeted Muslims, monitoring mosques, Muslim-owned businesses, and student groups without evidence of criminal activity.^[97]

This trope has been used to justify discriminatory policies targeting Muslims worldwide. In India, Hindu nationalist rhetoric frequently frames Muslims as violent "invaders," fueling religious riots and lynchings of Muslims accused of eating beef or engaging in "love jihad" (a conspiracy theory that Muslim men seek to convert Hindu women through marriage).^[98] In China, the Chinese government has justified the internment of over a million Uyghur Muslims in so-called "re-education" camps by labeling them as security threats and extremists.^[99]

Violence against children

See also: antisemitic version of the trope and Shiraz pogrom

Stories about Muslims killing children often receive disproportionate media attention in non-Muslim countries. Some are real events that are given disproportionate coverage, but others are proven to be complete fabrications, or not committed by Muslims.^[100] Like the corresponding antisemitic trope, the stories have been used to incite violence against Muslims. Such as in the 2024 United Kingdom riots, from July till 5 August 2024, far-right, anti-immigration protests and riots occurred in England and Northern Ireland, within the United Kingdom.^[101] This followed a mass stabbing of girls at a dance party in Southport on 29 July in which three children were killed. The riots were fuelled by false claims circulated by far-right groups that the perpetrator of the attack was a Muslim and an asylum seeker, in addition to broader Islamophobic, racist, and anti-immigrant sentiments that had grown leading up to the protests.^[102] The disorder included racist attacks, arson, and looting and was the largest incident of social unrest in England since 2011.^[103]

Sometimes the retaliations include violence against children on a much larger scale that the inciting incident(s). Israeli soldiers, the Israeli Forces, and the first responder Israeli organization ZAKA said on French Israeli TV channel i24news that they had seen the bodies of beheaded infants at the site of the Kfar Aza massacre.^{[104][105][106]} This claim was repeated by U.S. President Biden separately, who stated that he "had seen photographic evidence of terrorists beheading children". NBC News called reports of "40 beheaded babies" unverified allegations,^[107] adding that they appeared "to have originated from Israeli soldiers and people affiliated with the Israel Defense Force" and that "an Israeli official told CNN the government had not confirmed claims of the beheadings".^[107] The allegation mainly "stemmed from a viral Israeli news broadcast clip" and the main X / Twitter accounts propagating the claims were i24NEWS and Israel's official account, even though Israeli Defense spokesperson Doron Spielman told NBC News that he could not confirm i24NEWS's report.^[107] In a speech to the Republican Jewish Coalition on 28 October, Eli Beer, founder of Israeli volunteer EMS group United Hatzalah, claimed that Hamas had burned a baby alive in an oven, with many journalists sharing the claim in tweets seen over 10 million times.^[108] Israeli journalists and police found no evidence for the claim, and a representative of ZAKA, a first responder organization, said the claim was "false".^{[108][109][110]} On 4 December 2023, Haaretz reported on Israeli claims about beheaded babies, stating that these "unverified stories [had been] disseminated by Israeli search and rescue groups, army officers and even Sara Netanyahu".^{[111][112][c]}

Martyrdom

Shaheed / Shahid (martyr)

See also: Martyr § Islam, Martyrdom in Islam, Martyrdom in Palestinian society, Martyrdom in Iran, Public diplomacy of Israel, MEMRI, and Shaheed (disambiguation)

One of the most prevalent Islamophobic tropes is the distortion of the Islamic concept of martyrdom. The word "Shaheed" (Arabic: شهيد) or "Shahid" (Persian: شهید) has been adopted into some varieties of English from the Arabic word for martyr.^[d] Among Muslims and in some other cultures the word retains a similar or broader meaning.^[115]

However, in some places where Muslims and non-Muslims are in conflict words derived from the Arabic "shaheed" have been given strong negative meanings or have become an Islamophobic slur. The word "Shahid" has been recently adopted in Modern Hebrew and Israeli English (Hebrew: שהיד, romanized: Shahid), as a loanword from Palestinian Arabic) and according to Haaretz the word "Shahid" has become "synonymous" with "terrorist" among Hebrew speakers in Israel since the suicide bombings of the 1990s.^[118]

72 virgins

See also: § Shahid

72 virgins is a claim that states that a martyr will get "72 virgins" in Paradise.^[122] The "72 virgins" do not appear in the Quran, they are a crude interpretation of lesser texts and commentaries that usually refer to Houri rather than "virgin".^[122] There is a common belief – in Western countries and Israel – that Muslim men are enthusiastic about dying in battle because they believe that they will be rewarded with "72 virgins" in heaven. This is often used to explain suicide attacks, and dismiss other possible motivations based on politics or personal circumstances. This pervasive meme is derived from a reference to the heavenly angels in Islamic depictions of heaven, specifically a fairly obscure Hadith describing them as dark-eyed virgin brides waiting for Islamic martyrs in heaven.^[123] But despite being a very common Islamophobic trope, and prominent in Anti-Arab racism, the story of "72 virgins", sometimes identified as the Houris, does not actually appear in the Qu'ran, and it is mostly a myth about a myth.^[124] The Quran in Arabic is believed by devout Muslims to be the direct word of God, while the Hadith are supplementary texts of less value. They are quotes from the prophet Mohammed which are believed to be often unreliable. Scholars attempt to assess their reliability through chains of narration (who told who that the prophet said), and many conclude that the story granting all men seventy-two wives has a weak chain of narrators.^[125]

Some reports of suicide bombers supposedly mentioning "virgins" waiting for them in heaven have allegedly been mistranslated. Some scholars say that the word used in the original Arabic has no connotation of gender and may be more accurately translates as 'angel' or 'heavenly being'.^{[126][example needed]}

Bin Laden's declaration of war

See also: Fatwas of Osama bin Laden § 1996 fatwa, Motives for the September 11 attacks, and Letter to the American People

Western media speculation of about the motives of suicide bombers surged after the 2001 September 11 attacks in the United States. This included the 72 virgins story.^[127]

One of the earliest appearances of the "72 virgins" trope is in a post 9/11 American English translation of a 1996 statement by Osama bin Laden.^[128] The Hadith reference was a minor point in a long manifesto that outlined his grievances with the United States.^[129][130]

"The martyr has a guarantee from God: He forgives him at the first drop of his blood and shows him his seat in Heaven. He decorates him with the jewels of faith, protects him from the torment of the grave, keeps him safe on the day of judgment, places a crown of dignity on his head with the finest rubies in the world, marries him to seventy-two of the pure virgins of paradise and intercedes on behalf of seventy of his relatives," as related by Ahmad al-Tirmidhi in an authoritative hadith.

— "Osama bin Laden's Declaration of Jihad against Americans".^{[131][132][133]}

Other translations of the Hadith, even in translations of the same manifesto, do not use sexual language:

"a martyr privileges are guaranteed by Allah; forgiveness with the first gush of his blood, he will be shown his seat in paradise, he will be decorated with the jewels of belief (Imaan), married off to the beautiful ones, protected from the test in the grave, assured security in the day of judgement, crowned with the crown of dignity, a ruby of which is better than this whole world (Duniah) and its' entire content, wedded to seventy two of the pure Houries (beautiful ones of Paradise) and his intercession on the behalf of seventy of his relatives will be accepted".

— Osama bin Laden, "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places", first published in Al Quds Al Arabi, in August 1996.^[134]

This 1996 statement by Bin Laden is usually entitled "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places", but the document is also sometimes called the Ladenese epistle, a term derived from bin Laden's nasab.^[135] It is a long piece, and complains of American activities in numerous countries. It was faxed to Arabic-language newspapers internationally but particularly in England.^[136] It first appeared in the London-based Arabic paper Al-Quds Al-Arabi.^[135]

Media using the 72 virgins trope

Further information: Islamophobia in the media, psychological warfare, dehumanization, and demonization

Seventy-Two Virgins (2004 Boris Johnson novel)

Further information: Seventy-Two Virgins, Islamophobia in the United Kingdom, anti-Arab racism, Antisemitic trope, and Antisemitism in the United Kingdom § Political parties

Seventy-Two Virgins was the title of a novel by UK Conservative Party politician Boris Johnson.^[137][138] Pink News described the novel as having ‘racist, misogynistic, homophobic’ references, such as describing Arabs with “hook noses” and “slanty eyes”.^[139]

72 Hoorain (July 2023 Hindi film)

Further information: 72 Hoorain, Terrorism in India, Violence against Muslims in India, and Yasir Nadeem al Wajidi § Media presence and statements

See also: Shaheed (1948 film) and Shaheed (2002 film)

In June 2023, in response to the release of the Hindi language movie 72 Hoorain, Chicago-based Muslim scholar, Yasir Nadeem al Wajidi released a video on Twitter addressing misconceptions about Muslims and terrorism. He challenged the notion that global terrorism is driven by the promise of "72 Hoorain", emphasizing that such incidents constitute only a small fraction of global violence. He argued that while extremist groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda are universally condemned by Muslims as terrorists, other violent mobs, especially those targeting Muslims, are often not labeled as terrorists.^[140] The movie had a simultaneous release in over a dozen languages including English and Indian regional languages.^[141]

News media

The phrase "72 virgins" is occasionally used figuratively in political news about non-Muslim countries.^[142]

72 Virgins – Uncensored (2023 Telegram channel)

Further information: Israeli public diplomacy, Israeli public diplomacy in the Gaza war § 72 Virgins, and Psychological warfare § Israel

The most notable use of the 72 virgins trope was the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) psychological warfare unit's Hebrew language Telegram channel named "72 Virgins – Uncensored".^{[143][144][145][146]} The channel shared graphic images and videos of Palestinians taken in the Gaza Strip.^[147] The Telegram channel was run by the Israeli military psychological warfare division starting on 9 October 2023, shared graphic images and videos of Palestinians taken in Gaza.^[148] The name is a reference to the Islamophobic trope of Muslim combatants being motivated primarily by rewards in the afterlife, including the "72 virgins" in heaven.^[149][150] The channel originally presented itself as independent, but due to its privileged access to videos and images taken by soldiers, it was discovered to be run by the psychological warfare division of the IDF. The channel was shut down for operating against policy by targeting Israelis, with the unit's usual role being to target enemy and other international audiences.^{[151][146][152][153][154]} The Wire described the channel as "racist", for using language like, "Roaches to Be Exterminated".^[151]

A previous channel that presented itself as independent also turned out to be linked to the IDF. In 2021, Israeli newspaper Haaretz revealed that "Abu Ali Express", a popular news page on Telegram and Twitter purportedly dedicated to "Arab affairs", was actually run by a Jewish Israeli paid consultant to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).^[155]

Disagreements in academic research

See also: Palestinian suicide attacks § 72 virgins

Assaf Moghadam and a few other researchers say Palestinians who are willing to die in attacks on Israelis are motivated by the promise of rewards in the afterlife that are described in Islamic teachings and various hadiths.^{[156][157][158]} These rewards include forgiveness of sins, protection from hell, a crown of glory, marriage to seventy-two virgins (houris), and the ability to extend these privileges to seventy relatives.^[156][158] These promises create a strong incentive for individuals to undertake martyrdom, viewing it as a way to trade their limited earthly possessions for the luxurious rewards promised in paradise.^[156] Reports indicate that many are convinced of these rewards, which significantly influences their willingness to undertake martyrdom.^[156] Reportedly, there has been at least one case of a suicide bomber taking steps, like wrapping toilet paper around their genitals, to preserve their ability to enjoy these rewards.^[156] Similar claims circulating on social media have been debunked.^[159][160] Moghadam also claims that Palestinian media has framed martyrdom in terms of marriage to virgins, further solidifying this expectation.^[156]

According to some researchers the story of the 72 virgins promised to suicide bombers in paradise is a myth with no basis in Islam, and it is an Islamophobic trope. The majority of Palestinian suicide bombers are educated and not driven by economic despair. Furthermore, Jihadi leaders themselves reject candidates who seek self-sacrifice for rewards like virgins, as these individuals are considered unfit for such missions. Instead, suicide bombers are typically selected for their ideological commitment, patience, and planning abilities.^[161][162] The 72 virgins trope is not relevant to Palestinian religious life, and instead has often been perpetuated by western media. Muslim scholars emphasize that it is not part of Islamic teachings.^[163]

Scott Atran, a cultural anthropologist researching terrorism, argued against the narrative that suicide bombers are primarily motivated by the belief in rewards such as 72 virgins. In his research and interviews with jihadi leaders, Atran asserts that he has never encountered a case where suicide bombers were driven by such beliefs, emphasizing that if anyone were to approach jihadi leaders seeking martyrdom for the promise of virgins, the door would immediately be “slammed in their face”.^[164]

Political scientist Robert Pape stated in a study of over 2,200 suicide attacks carried out over a 30-year period that 95% of these attacks had nothing to do with promises of 72 virgins or heavenly rewards. Instead, they were a response to foreign occupation; 90% of the attacks were anti-American and occurred in regions under U.S. occupation. The study also noted a dramatic decline in suicide bombings in Israel after the country withdrew from Gaza and parts of the West Bank. Pape argued that suicide bombing is primarily driven by cultural divides, and the failure of other forms of resistance, with suicide bombing emerging as a last resort.^{[165][166][167]}

Oppression of women

a Muslim woman from Malaysia wearing a hijab.

Further information: Women in Islam and Hijabophobia

The Islam oppresses women trope is a widespread Islamophobic stereotype that portrays Muslim women as universally subjugated and oppressed by Islamic teachings and Muslim men. This narrative is frequently used to justify discriminatory policies, foreign interventions, and anti-Muslim sentiment, often ignoring the diverse experiences of Muslim women and the role of colonialism, geopolitics, and socio-economic factors in shaping gender dynamics in Muslim-majority societies.^[168]

The trope has historical roots in Orientalist discourse, where European colonial powers framed Muslim societies as inherently patriarchal to justify intervention and control. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, European colonial authorities used the narrative of "saving" Muslim women from oppression to rationalize imperial expansion in North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.^[169] This rhetoric has persisted into modern times, with Western political leaders frequently invoking the supposed oppression of Muslim women to justify policies ranging from immigration bans to military interventions.^[170]

A key aspect of this misrepresentation is the portrayal of Islamic dress, particularly the hijab, chador, niqab, or burqa, as symbols of forced submission. While some Muslim women face coercion in specific contexts, many others freely choose to wear these garments for cultural, religious, or personal reasons.^[171] The assumption that all Muslim women who cover themselves are oppressed disregards their agency and ignores the fact that modest dress exists across many religious traditions, including Christianity and Judaism.

Western media disproportionately highlights cases of gender-based violence in Muslim-majority countries while downplaying similar issues in non-Muslim societies. Honor killings, forced marriages, and domestic violence are framed as intrinsic to Islam, despite Islam's prohibition of all three acts and the prevalence of these crimes across cultures and religions worldwide.^[172]

The trope has led to policies that allegedly discriminate against Muslim women. In France, Belgium, and Switzerland, bans on full face coverings (such as the burqa, not including the hijab) restrict Muslim women's autonomy.^[173] In India, Hindu nationalist rhetoric by the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party has targeted Muslim personal laws, portraying them as oppressive to Muslim women in order to justify its policies which Muslims view as government interference in religious affairs, like banning triple talaq, amending laws related to waqf to allow people other than Muslim men to manage waqf properties^[174] and abolishing separate personal laws for Muslims in order to implement a uniform civil code while simultaneously enacting discriminatory policies against Muslim communities, such as the 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act.^[98]

In Western countries Muslim women who wear headscarves are disproportionately targeted in hate crimes. Studies in the US, UK, and Canada show that visibly Muslim women face higher rates of harassment and violence compared to Muslim men. The assumption that Muslim women need "saving" has also fueled Islamophobic discrimination in workplaces and schools, where Muslim women have been denied jobs, education, or public services due to their attire.^[175]

Far-right groups and anti-Muslim activists frequently weaponize this trope to push anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim policies.^[176] In Europe and North America, nationalist movements have framed Muslim men as a threat to women's safety. This narrative gained traction after the 2015 European migrant crisis and Cologne sexual assaults when far-right groups exaggerated or fabricated stories about Muslim migrants sexually assaulting European women to justify restrictive immigration policies.^[177]

Homophobia and transphobia

European far-right

Further information: European far right

See also: Alice Weidel

Marine Le Pen, president of the French far-right political party National Rally in France, was gaining support from LGBTQ communities in the presidential election, despite the fact that Jean-Marie Le Pen, her father and the founder of the party, once condemned homosexuality as "a biological and social anomaly".^[178] After the Orlando nightclub shooting, Marine Le Pen declared "how much homosexuality is attacked in countries that live under the Islamist jackboot".^[178] Facing these threats and receiving "sympathy" from Le Pen, some LGBTQ voters started to advocate for the far-right party, with one supporter stating that "they'll be the first victims of these barbarians, and only Marine is proposing radical solutions".^[178]

See also: 72 virgins (above) and Al Qaws

Further information: Pinkwashing, Queer advocacy in the Gaza war, LGBTQ rights in Palestine, and public diplomacy of Israel

Israeli public diplomacy uses accusations of extreme homophobia in an attempt to discourage progressives from sympathising with Palestinian Muslims. These accusations are backed up by polls showing 93% of Palestinians are opposed to homosexuality, and many gay Palestinians have sought and gained asylum in Israel.^[179][180] In 2019, the PA banned the LGBTQ group Al Qaws in the West Bank.^[181]

Eretz Nehederet Queers for Palestine sketch

Further information: Israeli public diplomacy in the Gaza war § Eretz Nehederet sketches, and Eretz Nehederet

On November 5, 2023, "Eretz Nehederet" aired a skit mocking Progressivism at United States university campuses. The skit depicted stereotypes of two queer activists from the Queers for Palestine movement, supportively talking with a Hamas militant.^{[182][additional citation(s) needed]} The militant speaks openly about wanting to kill Jews and LGBTQ people, saying "we will throw you from the roof, you homosexual dirt!" with the activists continuing to praise and support him.^[183] On 5 November 2023, "Eretz Nehederet" aired a skit mocking the "Woke" culture on university campuses in the United States, claiming that they support Hamas militants. The skit showed two queer activists, from the "Queers for Palestine" movement at Columbia University, depicted in a demeaning and stereotyped way, who supportively talk to a Hamas militant, who speaks openly about his desire to murder Jews and LGBT people.^[184][185] The militant says, "we will throw you from the roof, you homosexual dirt!" but the stereotyped characters continue to praise him and offer him material support.^[186] This references a specific piece of disinformation that was used by supporters of Israel numerous times elsewhere. Other instances of this disinformation tactic used images of ISIS in Mosul, but misrepresented it as being an image of Hamas in Gaza, allegedly throwing queer people from a building. There have been real public executions in Gaza, but only for murder and treason,^[e] and the executions are done by hanging or firing squad.^[187] Human rights activists in Gaza very actively oppose the death penalty.^[187] In another sketch, "Greta Tunberry" (a parody of Greta Thunberg) is shown with friends waving signs in support of Hamas - LGBT and Jewish, and a "Smurf" who displays a sign that says "supports Gargamel".^[188] Gargamel is an antisemitic caricature, and is the main enemy of the Smurfs in the cartoon.^{[189][190][188][verification needed]}

Hyperboles and misattributions about violence

See also: Capital punishment for homosexuality, LGBTQ rights in the State of Palestine, and Misinformation in the Gaza war

Accusations against Palestinians

Hamas' Al-Qassam Brigades militant wing have been credibly accused of numerous war crimes including various extrajudicial killings, but commonly told stories about executions in the Gaza Strip have been over simplified, exaggerated, distorted, or completely fabricated.^[191] For example, during the Gaza war, a video described as “Hamas executes people by throwing them off a roof of a building!” circulated on social media, but the video was from 2015 and not from Palestine.^[191] A July 2015 report from Al Arabiya, included identical images and stated that they were originally shared by the ISIS, and showed the execution of four gay men in Fallujah, Iraq.^[191] Same sex sexual behaviour is not officially or typically a capital crime in the Gaza Strip.^[192][193] The only crimes that routinely attract the death penalty are treason and murder. No laws currently in place in the occupied Palestinian territory directly prohibit sex between consenting adult women.^[194] But there are differences between the Gaza Strip and West Bank governments regarding the legal status of sex between consenting adult men. The laws against homosexual behavior between men in Palestine that are currently in place in the Gaza Strip are a relic of British colonial rule in Palestine.^[192][193] There is some ambiguity and debate about whether homosexuality was decriminalized in 1858, during the Ottoman period that preceded the British.^[195] The British colonial laws that have been in place in the Gaza Strip specify a maximum sentence of 10 or 14 years in prison.^[192][193] There is very little evidence that these laws are actually enforced in Gaza.^[192] Some interpretations of the laws say that it does not outlaw consensual gay sex between adults at all. In 2018, Anis. F. Kassim (editor-in-chief of the Palestinian Yearbook of International Law) said that Palestinian law (even in Gaza) could be interpreted as allowing non-commercial sex between consenting adult men.^[193]

In popular culture

Pro-Palestinian protest in Los Angeles against the Gaza war and Hollywood's role in dehumanizing Muslims, November 2023.

Hollywood

See also: anti-Arab racism

Throughout the twentieth century, Hollywood films have often portrayed Muslim characters negatively, making use of Orientalist stereotypes and depicting such characters as being "uncivilised". In addition to these tropes, the securitization of Muslims, portraying them as a threat to the Western world, has drastically increased in movie depictions since the post-9/11 era.^[196]

Bollywood

See also: Godi Media and 72 Hoorain (above)

There are growing instances of Islamophobia in Hindi cinema, or Bollywood, in films such as Aamir (2008), New York (2009), Tanhaji (2020), The Kashmir Files (2022), The Kerala Story (2023) and Chhava (2025) which corresponds to a growing anti-Muslim sentiment that followed the resurgence of the Hindu right due to BJP coming into power in 2014.^[197][198]

Television

Eretz Nehederet is an Israeli TV program that uses Islamophobic tropes to mock Palestinians. It also uses homophobic and misogynistic tropes^{[dubious – discuss]} to mock western progressives who criticize Israel's treatment of Palestinians. See, Israeli public diplomacy in the Gaza war § Eretz Nehederet sketches and "Queers for Palestine sketch" (above).

Novels

• Seventy-Two Virgins – 2004 comic political novel by Boris Johnson (see above).

Audio

• Shiny Happy Jihad – 2007 stand up album by Joe Rogan.

See also

• Islam portal

• Islamism
• Islamofascism
• Islamo-leftism
• Criticism of Islam
• Anti-Arab racism
• Anti-Muslim violence
• Anti-Palestinianism
• Antisemitic tropes
• Antisemitism
• Hasbara
• Islamophobia in the media
• Pallywood
• Persecution of Muslims
• Persecution of Uyghurs in China
• Violence against Muslims in Burma

Notes

1. See also: Likud § Shamir and Netanyahu's first term and Lehi (militant group) § Nazi Germany
2. Amin al-Husseini attempted to obtain support from Germany, but so did the predecessors of Netanyahu's Likud party.^[57][58] The Lehi martyrs memorial page openly admits this and attempts to explain their reasons.^[59][60]
3. The false claims that babies were beheaded in the Hamas assault were not promoted only by Israeli civilians or rescue volunteers, but also by the government. Le Monde has stated: "Israel has done nothing to fight it and has more often tried to instrumentalize it than deny it, fueling accusations of media manipulation".^[113]
4. "Shaheed" in Commonwealth English and among English speaking Muslims.^{[114][115][116][117]} From Arabic.

   • Arabic: شهيد, romanized: shaheed, lit. 'male martyr'.
   • Arabic: شهيدة, romanized: shaheeda, lit. 'female martyr'.

   "Shahid" in Israeli English, from Arabic, via Modern Hebrew.^[118][119]

   • Male singular Hebrew: שהיד, romanized: shahid.^[118]
   • Female singular Hebrew: שהידה, romanized: shahida.^[120][121]
5. Treason is almost always "Collaboration with hostile entities" outlawed by Article 131(1) of the 1979 Revolutionary Penal Code, a law that pre-dates Hamas, but is no longer officially enforced by the Ramallah-based faction of Palestine's split government.