Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), also known as prion diseases,^[1] are a group of progressive, incurable, and fatal conditions that are associated with the degeneration of the nervous system in many animals, including humans, cattle, and sheep. Strong evidence now supports the once unorthodox hypothesis that TSEs are transmitted by abnormally shaped protein molecules known as prions.^[2][3] Prions consist of a protein called the prion protein (PrP).^[2] Misshapen PrP (often referred to as PrP^Sc) conveys its abnormal structure to naive PrP molecules by a crystallization-like seeding process. Because the abnormal proteins stick to each other, and because PrP is continuously produced by cells, PrP^Sc accumulates in the brain, harming neurons and eventually causing clinical disease.^[2][4][3]

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE)
Other names	Prion disease
Micrograph showing spongiform degeneration (vacuoles that appear as holes in tissue sections) in the cerebral cortex of a patient who had died of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. H&E stain, scale bar = 30 microns (0.03 mm).
Specialty	Infectious diseases
Symptoms	Dementia, seizures, tremors, insomnia, psychosis, delirium, confusion
Usual onset	Months to decades
Types	Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, Fatal familial insomnia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru, Huntington's disease-like 1, scrapie, variably protease-sensitive prionopathy, chronic wasting disease, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome, feline spongiform encephalopathy, transmissible mink encephalopathy, exotic ungulate encephalopathy, camel spongiform encephalopathy, PrP systemic amyloidosis, Familial Alzheimer-like prion disease
Causes	Prion
Risk factors	Contact with infected fluids, ingestion of infected flesh, having one or two parents that have the disease (in case of fatal familial insomnia)
Diagnostic method	Currently there is no way to reliably detect prions except at post-mortem
Prevention	Varies
Treatment	Palliative care
Prognosis	Invariably fatal
Frequency	Rare

TSEs are marked by mental and physical deterioration that worsens over time.^[5][6] A defining pathologic characteristic of TSEs is the appearance of small vacuoles in the various parts of the central nervous system that create a sponge-like appearance when brain tissue obtained at autopsy is examined under a microscope.^[2][3] Other changes in affected regions include the buildup of PrP^Sc, gliosis, and the loss of neurons.^[7]

TSEs in non-human mammals include scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle (popularly known as "mad cow disease") chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer and elk, and others.^[8] TSEs of humans include Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, kuru, and variably protease-sensitive prionopathy.^[6][9] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease has been divided into four subtypes: sporadic (sCJD), hereditary/familial (fCJD), iatrogenic (iCJD) and variant (vCJD). These diseases form a spectrum of related conditions with overlapping signs and symptoms.

TSEs are unusual diseases in that their aetiology may be genetic, infectious, or sporadic.^[2] Genetic (inherited) TSEs result from rare mutations in PRNP, the gene that codes for PrP (see Genetics, below). Unlike conventional infectious diseases, which are spread by agents with a DNA or RNA genome (such as viruses or bacteria), TSEs are transmitted by prions, the active material of which is solely abnormal PrP. Infection can occur when the organism is exposed to prions through ingestion of infected foodstuffs or via iatrogenic means (such as treatment with biologic material that had been inadvertently contaminated with prions).^[10] The variant form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans is caused by exposure to BSE prions.^[11][12][13] Whereas the naturally occurring transmission of TSEs among nonhuman species is relatively common, the transmission of TSEs to humans is very rare; rather, the majority of human TSEs are sporadic (idiopathic) in nature.^[14] (see Infectivity, below). Sporadic TSEs occur in the absence of a mutation in PrP or a source of infection.

Although research has shown that the infectious capacity of prions is encoded in the conformation of PrP^Sc,^[2][4] it is likely that auxilliary components contribute to their formation and/or infectivity. Purified PrP^C appears to be unable to convert to the infectious PrP^Sc form in a protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA) assay unless other components are added, such as a polyanion (usually RNA) and lipids. These other components, termed cofactors, may form part of the infectious prion, or they may serve as catalysts for the replication of a protein-only prion.^[15] Considering that the cofactors can be produced by chemical synthesis instead of being sourced solely from infected cases (or any animal at all), it is fair to say that they do not form the infectious part of the prion. However, these catalysts (especially the polyanion) do have a tendency to be included in the prion aggregate, which makes seeding new aggregates easier in vitro.^[16][17]

Classification

Differences in shape between the different prion protein forms are incompletely understood, although new methods such as cryo-electron microscopy are beginning to address this problem.^[18]

Known spongiform encephalopathies

ICTVdb Code	Disease name	Natural host	Prion name	PrP isoform	Ruminant
Non-human mammals
90.001.0.01.001.	Scrapie	Sheep and goats	Scrapie prion	PrPSc	Yes
90.001.0.01.002.	Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME)	Mink	TME prion	PrPTME	No
90.001.0.01.003.	Chronic wasting disease (CWD)	Elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer and red deer	CWD prion	PrPCWD	Yes
90.001.0.01.004.	Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly known as "mad cow disease"	Cattle	BSE prion	PrPBSE	Yes
90.001.0.01.005.	Feline spongiform encephalopathy (FSE)	Cats	FSE prion	PrPFSE	No
90.001.0.01.006.	Exotic ungulate encephalopathy (EUE)	Nyala and greater kudu	EUE prion	PrPEUE	Yes
	Camel spongiform encephalopathy (CSE)[19]	Camel		PrPCSE	Yes
Human diseases
90.001.0.01.007.	Kuru	Humans	Kuru prion	PrPKuru	No
90.001.0.01.008.	Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD)		CJD prion	PrPsCJD	No
	Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD, nvCJD)		vCJD prion[20]	PrPvCJD
90.001.0.01.009.	Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS)		GSS prion	PrPGSS	No
90.001.0.01.010.	Fatal familial insomnia (FFI)		FFI prion	PrPFFI	No
	Familial spongiform encephalopathy[21]

Pathology

The degenerative tissue damage caused by prion disease in the nervous system is characterised by four features: spongiform change (the presence of many small vacuoles), the death of neurons, astrocytosis (abnormal increase in the number of astrocytes), and deposits of abnormal PrP (some of which have the characteristics of amyloid).^[22] These neuropathological features have formed the basis of the histological diagnosis of prion diseases for many years, although it has been recognized that these changes are highly variable both from case to case and within the central nervous system in individual cases.^[23][22] In humans, prion diseases with different genetic or infectious causes often have different patterns of pathology. For instance, amyloid plaques are rare in most prion diseases, but they are common in some diseases such as kuru and variant CJD. Owing to the rarity of amyloid per se in prion diseases, it is thought that non-amyloid forms of PrPSc are responsible for neurodegeneration.^[22] In rare instances of human prion disease, tauopathy resembling the neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer's disease is present, highlighting the many ways in which the pathology of prion diseases can vary.^[22] Despite this variation, all prion diseases have in common the buildup of abnormal PrP in the nervous system.

Signs and symptoms

The clinical signs of prion diseases in humans vary, but the classical signs of sporadic CJD include rapidly progressive dementia, behavioral abnormalities, disturbances of movement such as lack of coordination and/or an unsteady gait (ataxia), and involuntary jerking movements (myoclonus).^[24][25] Patients also may experience unusual sensations, insomnia, and confusion, and in the later stages of the disease they may lose the ability to move or speak.^[26] The clinical course of prion diseases usually is relatively rapid (the mean survival time for sporadic CJD is 6 months, although it can sometimes be a year or more),^[24] and all prion diseases are ultimately fatal. Studies of heritable and acquired (infectious) prion diseases have found that the relatively brief symptomatic phase is preceded by a long silent phase during which the pathology develops in the brain. For example, the incubation period for kuru following infection with prions can exceed 50 years.^[3] The highly variable nature of signs and symptoms in prion diseases makes them difficult to distinguish from other neurologic disorders based solely on their clinical traits.^[24]

Genetics

Only a small percentage of human prion disease cases are heritable; most of them occur sporadically, that is, in the absence of known genetic mutations or infection.^[27] However, discovery of the gene involved in heritable prion diseases was a critical event in linking abnormalities of the prion protein to genetic, infectious and idiopathic prion diseases.^[2] All familial forms of prion disease are caused by inherited mutations in the PRNP gene, which codes for PrP.^[27] Three general types of PRNP mutation can lead to disease: point mutations that change an amino acid in a specific part of PrP; a premature stop codon that results in shortened PrP molecules; or the insertion of extra octapeptide repeats that abnormally lengthen part of the protein.^[27] These mutations increase the likelihood that PrP will fold into the wrong shape (PrP^Sc) and amplify within the nervous system. Different mutations can cause prion diseases with different clinical and pathological characteristics.^[27]

The normal function(s) of PrP are incompletely understood, although it is likely that the protein participates in many functions.^[28] It is expressed in throughout much of the body, and is especially abundant in the nervous system.^[29] When the PRNP gene is inactivated in animals such as mice, cattle and goats, the PrP-deficient animals are resistant to prion infection.^[29] Although the absence of a functional PRNP gene can result in changes in various tissues, the animals are viable and appear to be relatively normal, at least at young ages.^[29]

Infectivity

In 1959, William Hadlow recognized striking similarities between the kuru cases described by D. Carleton Gajdusek and scrapie, the transmissible disease of sheep and goats.^[30] The shared features of human and nonhuman prion diseases prompted Gajdusek to conduct a series of experiments in which he demonstrated that human spongiform encephalopathies (as prion diseases were then commonly known) are transmissible to nonhuman primates. His research group reported the transmissibility of kuru in 1966,^[31] (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)) in 1968,^[32] and Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome (GSS) in 1981.^[33] These experiments showed that human spongiform encephalopathies, like those in nonhuman species, can be infectious; because the diseases have an unusually long incubation period following exposure to the infectious agent,^[25] the agent was sometimes referred to as a 'slow virus'.^[34][2] The infectious agent was not shown with reasonable certainty to be primarily a protein until the work of Stanley Prusiner gave rise to the prion concept in 1982.^[35][2]

Infectious prion diseases in humans are rare and decreasing in incidence, although iatrogenic versions have been recognized since the 1980's.^[24] Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease has been inadvertently transmitted to patients via injections of growth hormone harvested from human cadaveric pituitary glands, from cadaveric dural allografts, and (more rarely) from corneal transplants, transfusion of blood products, and exposure to contaminated instruments used for brain surgery.^[24] Prions can survive heating in the autoclave, a method used for the conventional sterilization of surgical instruments^[36]. For this reason, special precautions need to be taken to ensure the sterility of neurosurgical instruments.^[37]

Dietary consumption of affected animal parts can transmit prion disease, especially in nonhuman species in which infectious prion diseases are relatively common. In humans, infection via consumption is very rare, two well-known examples being kuru and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD).^[6] Kuru is a (now extinct) prion disease that reached epidemic proportions in the mid-20th century in the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. Until the practice was abandoned in the mid-20th century, the Fore people would consume their dead as a funerary ritual.^[38] With the cessation of ritual cannibalism, new cases of kuru slowly ceased to appear.^[24] A more well-known infectious human prion disease is vCJD, a zoonotic prion disease that is caused by the consumption of tissues from cows with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).^[25] Cows are thought to have acquired BSE by consuming food that contained meat products derived from animals with prion disease, possibly sheep with scrapie.^[24] Fortunately, vCJD has largely been eliminated by efforts to exclude tainted meat products from the food chain. Regulations in many developed countries now ban the use of rendered ruminant proteins in ruminant feed as a precaution against the spread of prion infection in cattle and other ruminants.^[39]

Prions cannot be transmitted through the air, through touching, or most other forms of casual contact. However, they may be transmitted through contact with infected tissue, bodily fluids, or contaminated medical instruments. Normal sterilization procedures such as boiling or irradiating materials fail to render prions non-infective. However, treatment with strong, almost undiluted bleach and/or sodium hydroxide, or heating to a minimum of 134 °C, does destroy prions.^[40]

Epidemiological surveillance has identified cases of atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and scrapie in livestock, as well as chronic wasting disease (CWD) in cervids, highlighting the zoonotic potential of prion diseases and their impact on animal and human health.^[41]

Other hypotheses

The infectious protein hypothesis has become the prevailing explanation for the causation of prion diseases.^[24][2][34] However, in the years following the recognition of their infectivity, other hypotheses have been proposed. These include unorthodox forms of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, or unusual or cryptic infectious agents^[2] Regarding causation by nucleic acid-based infectious agents, a hypothesis championed by Laura Manuelidis invokes a cryptic virus, and another proposed by Frank O. Bastian holds that Spiroplasma infection, specifically Spiroplasma mirum, is a cause of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.^[42] No alternative hypothesis has garnered sufficient support to challenge the prion paradigm.^[2][43][44]

Diagnosis

There continues to be a very practical problem with diagnosis of prion diseases, including BSE and CJD. They have an incubation period of months to decades during which there are no symptoms, even though the pathway of converting the normal brain PrP protein into the toxic, disease-related PrP^Sc form has started. At present, there is virtually no way to detect PrP^Sc reliably except by examining the brain using neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods after death. Accumulation of the abnormally folded PrP^Sc form of the PrP protein is a characteristic of the disease, but it is present at very low levels in easily accessible body fluids like blood or urine. Researchers have tried to develop methods to measure PrP^Sc, but there are still no fully accepted methods for use in materials such as blood.^{[citation needed]}

In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrP^Sc even when initially present at only one part in a hundred billion (10⁻¹¹) in brain tissue. The method combines amplification with a novel technology called Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA) and some specific antibodies against PrP^Sc. After amplifying and then concentrating any PrP^Sc, the samples are labelled with a fluorescent dye using an antibody for specificity and then finally loaded into a micro-capillary tube. This tube is placed in a specially constructed apparatus so that it is totally surrounded by optical fibres to capture all light emitted once the dye is excited using a laser. The technique allowed detection of PrP^Sc after many fewer cycles of conversion than others have achieved, substantially reducing the possibility of artefacts, as well as speeding up the assay. The researchers also tested their method on blood samples from apparently healthy sheep that went on to develop scrapie. The animals' brains were analysed once any symptoms became apparent. The researchers could therefore compare results from brain tissue and blood taken once the animals exhibited symptoms of the diseases, with blood obtained earlier in the animals' lives, and from uninfected animals. The results showed very clearly that PrP^Sc could be detected in the blood of animals long before the symptoms appeared.^[45][46]

Treatment

There are currently no known ways to cure or prevent prion disease.^[47] Certain medications slow down the progression of the disease in mice, but are not effective in trials with human patients.^[48] But ultimately, supportive care is currently the only option for infected individuals.

Epidemiology

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) are very rare but can reach epidemic proportions.^{[clarification needed]} It is very hard to map the spread of the disease due to the difficulty of identifying individual strains of the prions. This means that, if animals at one farm begin to show the disease after an outbreak on a nearby farm, it is very difficult to determine whether it is the same strain affecting both herds—suggesting transmission—or if the second outbreak came from a completely different source.^{[citation needed]}

Classic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) was discovered in 1920. It occurs sporadically over the world but is very rare. It affects about one person per million each year. Typically, the cause is unknown for these cases. It has been found to be passed on genetically in some cases. 250 patients contracted the disease through iatrogenic transmission (from use of contaminated surgical equipment).^[49] This was before equipment sterilization was required in 1976, and there have been no other iatrogenic cases since then. In order to prevent the spread of infection, the World Health Organization created a guide to tell health care workers what to do when CJD appears and how to dispose of contaminated equipment.^[50] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have been keeping surveillance on CJD cases, particularly by looking at death certificate information.^[51]

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a prion disease found in North America in deer and elk. The first case was identified as a fatal wasting syndrome in the 1960s. It was then recognized as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in 1978. Surveillance studies showed that CWD was endemic among free-ranging deer and elk in northeastern Colorado, southeastern Wyoming and western Nebraska. It was also discovered that CWD may have been present in a proportion of free-ranging animals decades before the initial recognition. In the United States, the discovery of CWD raised concerns about the transmission of this prion disease to humans. It was suspected that many cases of CJD were transmitted by CWD, however the evidence was minimal.^[41]

In the 1980s and 1990s, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or "mad cow disease") spread in cattle at an epidemic rate. The total estimated number of cattle infected was approximately 750,000 between 1980 and 1996 as a result of being fed the processed remains of other cattle. Subsequent human consumption of these infected cattle caused an outbreak of the human form CJD. There was a dramatic decline in BSE when feeding bans were put in place. On May 20, 2003, the first case of BSE was confirmed in North America, suspected to originate from imported BSE-infected cow meat. In the United States, the USDA created safeguards to minimize the risk of BSE exposure to humans.^[41]

Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) was discovered in 1996 in England. There is strong evidence to suggest that vCJD was caused by the same prion as bovine spongiform encephalopathy.^[52] "Since 1996 and as of August 2013, a total of 229 cases of variant CJD cases have been identified from 11 countries: 177 from the United Kingdom, 27 from France, 4 from Ireland, 4 from the United States, 5 from Spain, 3 in the Netherlands, 2 each from Portugal, Italy and Canada, and 1 each from Japan, Taiwan and Saudi Arabia."^[53]

History

In the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates described a disease like TSE in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in humans.^[54] Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus records cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the 4th and 5th centuries AD.^{[citation needed]} In 1755, an outbreak of scrapie was discussed in the British House of Commons and may have been present in Britain for some time before that.^[55] Although there were unsupported claims in 1759 that the disease was contagious, in general it was thought to be due to inbreeding and countermeasures appeared to be successful. Early-20th-century experiments failed to show transmission of scrapie between animals, until extraordinary measures were taken such as the intra-ocular injection of infected nervous tissue. No direct link between scrapie and human disease was suspected then or has been found since. TSE was first described in humans by Alfons Maria Jakob in 1921.^[56] Daniel Carleton Gajdusek's discovery that Kuru was transmitted by cannibalism accompanied by the finding of scrapie-like lesions in the brains of Kuru victims strongly suggested an infectious basis to TSE.^[57] A paradigm shift to a non-nucleic infectious entity was required when the results were validated with an explanation of how a prion protein might transmit spongiform encephalopathy.^[58] Not until 1988 was the neuropathology of spongiform encephalopathy properly described in cows.^[59] The alarming amplification of BSE in the British cattle herd heightened fear of transmission to humans and reinforced the belief in the infectious nature of TSE. This was confirmed with the identification of a Kuru-like disease, called new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, in humans exposed to BSE.^[60] Although the infectious disease model of TSE has been questioned in favour of a prion transplantation model that explains why cannibalism favours transmission,^[54] the search for a viral agent was, as of 2007, being continued in some laboratories.^[61][62]

See also

• Proteinopathy
• Variably protease-sensitive prionopathy