Germans

Germans (German: Deutsche, pronounced [ˈdɔʏtʃə] ^ⓘ) are the natives or inhabitants of Germany, or sometimes more broadly any people who are of German descent or native speakers of the German language.^[1]^[2] The constitution of Germany, implemented in 1949 following the end of World War II, defines a German as a German citizen.^[3] During the 19th and much of the 20th century, discussions on German identity were dominated by concepts of a common language, culture, descent, and history.^[4] Today, the German language is widely seen as the primary, though not exclusive, criterion of German identity.^[5] Estimates on the total number of Germans in the world range from 100 to 150 million, most of whom live in Germany.^[6]

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The history of Germans as an ethnic group began with the separation of a distinct Kingdom of Germany from the eastern part of the Frankish Empire under the Ottonian dynasty in the 10th century, forming the core of the Holy Roman Empire. In subsequent centuries the political power and population of this empire grew considerably. It expanded eastwards, and eventually a substantial number of Germans migrated further eastwards into Eastern Europe. The empire itself was generally decentralized and politically divided between many small princedoms, cities and bishoprics, while the idea of unified German state came later. Following the Reformation in the 16th century, many of these states found themselves in bitter conflict concerning the rise of Protestantism.

In the 19th century, the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, and German nationalism began to grow. At the same time however, the concept of German nationality became more complex. The multiethnic Kingdom of Prussia incorporated most Germans into its German Empire in 1871, and a substantial additional number of German speakers were in the multiethnic kingdom of Austria-Hungary. During this time, a large number of Germans also emigrated to the New World, particularly to the United States. Large numbers also emigrated to Canada and Brazil, and they established sizable communities in New Zealand and Australia. The Russian Empire also included a substantial German population.

Following the end of World War I, Austria-Hungary and the German Empire were partitioned, resulting in many Germans becoming ethnic minorities in newly established countries. In the chaotic years that followed, Adolf Hitler became the dictator of Nazi Germany and embarked on a genocidal campaign to unify all Germans under his leadership. His Nazi movement defined Germans in a very specific way which included Austrians, Luxembourgers, eastern Belgians, and so-called Volksdeutsche, who were ethnic Germans elsewhere in Europe and globally. However, this Nazi conception expressly excluded German citizens of Jewish or Roma background. Nazi policies of military aggression and its persecution of those deemed non-Germans led to World War II and the Holocaust in which the Nazi regime was defeated by allied powers, including the United States, United Kingdom, and the former Soviet Union. In the aftermath of Germany's defeat in the war, the country was occupied and once again partitioned. Millions of Germans were expelled from Central and Eastern Europe. In 1990, West Germany and East Germany were reunified. In modern times, remembrance of the Holocaust, known as Erinnerungskultur ("culture of remembrance"), has become an integral part of German identity.

Owing to their long history of political fragmentation, Germans are culturally diverse and often have strong regional identities. Sixteen Länder (states) make up modern Germany. Arts and sciences are an integral part of German culture, and the Germans have been represented by many prominent personalities in a significant number of disciplines, including Nobel prize laureates where Germany is ranked third among countries of the world in the number of total recipients.

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Names

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The English term Germans is derived from the ethnonym Germani, which was used for Germanic peoples in ancient times.^[7]^[8] Since the early modern period, it has been the most common name for the Germans in English, being applied to any citizens, natives or inhabitants of Germany, regardless of whether they are considered to have German ethnicity.

In some contexts, people of German descent are also called Germans.^[2]^[1] In historical discussions the term "Germans" is also occasionally used to refer to the Germanic peoples during the time of the Roman Empire.^[1]^[9]^[10]

The German endonym Deutsche is derived from the Old High German term diutisc, which means "ethnic" or "relating to the people". This term was used for speakers of West-Germanic languages in Central Europe since at least the 8th century, after which time a distinct German ethnic identity began to emerge among at least some them living within the Holy Roman Empire.^[7] However, variants of the same term were also used in the Low Countries, for the related dialects of what is still called Dutch in English, which is now a national language of the Netherlands and Belgium.

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History

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Ancient history

The first information about the peoples living in what is now Germany was provided by the Roman general and dictator Julius Caesar, who gave an account of his conquest of Gaul in the 1st century BC. He used the term Germani to describe the Germanic peoples living on both sides of the Rhine river, which he defined as a boundary between geographical Gaul and Germania. He emphasized that the Germani originated east of the river, and that this river border needed to be defended in order to avoid dangerous incursions. Archaeological evidence shows that at the time of Caesar's invasion, both Gaul and Germanic regions had long been strongly influenced by the same celtic La Tène culture.^[11] However, the Germanic languages associated with later Germanic peoples are indeed believed to have been entering the Rhine area from the east in this period.^[12] The resulting demographic situation reported by Caesar was that migrating Celts and Germanic peoples were moving into areas which threatened the Alpine regions and the Romans.^[11]

The modern German language is a descendant of the Germanic languages which spread during the Iron Age and Roman era. Scholars generally agree that it is possible to speak of Germanic languages existing as early as 500 BCE.^[13] These Germanic languages are believed to have dispersed towards the Rhine from the direction of the Jastorf culture, which was itself a Celtic influenced culture that existed in the Pre-Roman Iron Age, in the region near the Elbe river. It is likely that first Germanic consonant shift, which defines the Germanic language family, occurred during this period.^[14] The earlier Nordic Bronze Age of southern Scandinavia also shows definite population and material continuities with the Jastorf Culture,^[15] but it is unclear whether these indicate ethnic continuity.^[16]

Under Caesar's successors, the Romans began to conquer and control the entire region between the Rhine and the Elbe which centuries later constituted the largest part of medieval Germany. These efforts were significantly hampered by the victory of a local alliance led by Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, which is considered a defining moment in German history. While the Romans were nevertheless victorious, rather than installing a Roman administration they controlled the region indirectly for centuries, recruiting soldiers there, and playing the tribes off against each other.^[11]^[17] The early Germanic peoples were later famously described in more detail in Germania by the 1st century Roman historian Tacitus. He described them as a diverse group, dominating a much larger area than Germany, stretching to the Vistula in the east, and Scandinavia in the north.

Medieval history

German ethnicity began to emerge in medieval times among the descendants of those Germanic peoples who had lived under heavy Roman influence between the Rhine and Elbe rivers. This included Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringii, Alemanni and Baiuvarii – all of whom spoke related dialects of West Germanic.^[11] These peoples had come under the dominance of the western Franks starting with Clovis I, who established control of the Romanized and Frankish population of Gaul in the 5th century, and began a process of conquering the peoples east of the Rhine. The regions long continued to be divided into "Stem duchies", corresponding to the old ethnic designations.^[12] By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Europe were united under the rule of the Frankish leader Charlemagne, who expanded the Frankish empire in several directions including east of the Rhine, consolidating power over the Saxons and Frisians, and establishing the Carolingian Empire. Charlemagne was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III in 800.^[12]

In the generations after Charlemagne the empire was partitioned at the Treaty of Verdun (843), eventually resulting in the long-term separation between the states of West Francia, Middle Francia and East Francia. Beginning with Henry the Fowler, non-Frankish dynasties also ruled the eastern kingdom, and under his son Otto I, East Francia, which was mostly German, constituted the core of the Holy Roman Empire.^[18] Also under control of this loosely controlled empire were the previously independent kingdoms of Italy, Burgundy, and Lotharingia. The latter was a Roman and Frankish area which contained some of the oldest and most important old German cities including Aachen, Cologne and Trier, all west of the Rhine, and it became another Duchy within the eastern kingdom. Leaders of the stem duchies which constituted this eastern kingdom — Lotharingia, Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Thuringia, and Saxony ― initially wielded considerable power independently of the king.^[12] German kings were elected by members of the noble families, who often sought to have weak kings elected in order to preserve their own independence. This prevented an early unification of the Germans.^[19]^[20]

A warrior nobility dominated the feudal German society of the Middle Ages, while most of the German population consisted of peasants with few political rights.^[12] The church played an important role in the Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages, and competed with the nobility for power.^[21] Between the 11th and 13th centuries, German speakers from the empire actively participated in five Crusades to "liberate" the Holy Land.^[21] From the beginnings of the kingdom, its dynasties also participated in a push eastwards into Slavic-speaking regions. At the Saxon Eastern March in the north, the Polabian Slavs east of the Elbe were conquered over generations of often brutal conflict. Under the later control of powerful German dynasties it became an important region within modern Germany, and home to its modern capital, Berlin. German population also moved eastwards from the 11th century, in what is known as the Ostsiedlung.^[20] Over time, Slavic and German-speaking populations assimilated, meaning that many modern Germans have substantial Slavic ancestry.^[18] From the 12th century, many German speakers settled as merchants and craftsmen in the Kingdom of Poland, where they came to constitute a significant proportion of the population in many urban centers such as Gdańsk.^[18] During the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights began conquering the Old Prussians, and established what would eventually become the powerful German state of Prussia.^[20]

Further south, Bohemia and Hungary developed as kingdoms with their own non-German speaking elites. The Austrian March on the Middle Danube stopped expanding eastwards towards Hungary in the 11th century. Under Ottokar II, Bohemia (corresponding roughly to modern Czechia) became a kingdom within the empire, and even managed to take control of Austria, which was German-speaking. However, the late 13th century saw the election of Rudolf I of the House of Habsburg to the imperial throne, and he was able to acquire Austria for his own family. The Habsburgs would continue to play an important role in European history for centuries afterwards. Under the leadership of the Habsburgs the Holy Roman Empire itself remained weak, and by the late Middle Ages much of Lotharingia and Burgundy had come under the control of French dynasts, the House of Valois-Burgundy and House of Valois-Anjou. Step by step, Italy, Switzerland, Lorraine, and Savoy were no longer subject to effective imperial control.

Trade increased and there was a specialization of the arts and crafts.^[21] In the late Middle Ages the German economy grew under the influence of urban centers, which increased in size and wealth and formed powerful leagues, such as the Hanseatic League and the Swabian League, in order to protect their interests, often through supporting the German kings in their struggles with the nobility.^[20] These urban leagues significantly contributed to the development of German commerce and banking. German merchants of Hanseatic cities settled in cities throughout Northern Europe beyond the German lands.^[22]

Modern history

The Habsburg dynasty managed to maintain their grip upon the imperial throne in the early modern period. While the empire itself continued to be largely de-centralized, the Habsburgs' personal power increased outside of the core German lands. Charles V personally inherited control of the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the wealthy Low Countries (roughly modern Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands), the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia, and the Dukedom of Milan. Of these, the Bohemian and Hungarian titles remained connected to the imperial throne for centuries, making Austria a powerful multilingual empire in its own right. On the other hand, the Low Countries went to the Spanish crown and continued to evolve separately from Germany.

The introduction of printing by the German inventor Johannes Gutenberg contributed to the formation of a new understanding of faith and reason. At this time, the German monk Martin Luther pushed for reforms within the Catholic Church. Luther's efforts culminated in the Protestant Reformation.^[21]

Religious schism was a leading cause of the Thirty Years' War, a conflict that tore apart the Holy Roman Empire and its neighbours, leading to the death of millions of Germans. The terms of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ending the war, included a major reduction in the central authority of the Holy Roman Emperor.^[23] Among the most powerful German states to emerge in the aftermath was Protestant Prussia, under the rule of the House of Hohenzollern.^[24] Charles V and his Habsburg dynasty defended Roman Catholicism.

In the 18th century, German culture was significantly influenced by the Enlightenment.^[23]

After centuries of political fragmentation, a sense of German unity began to emerge in the 18th century.^[7] The Holy Roman Empire continued to decline until being dissolved altogether by Napoleon in 1806. In central Europe, the Napoleonic wars ushered in great social, political and economic changes, and catalyzed a national awakening among the Germans. By the late 18th century, German intellectuals such as Johann Gottfried Herder articulated the concept of a German identity rooted in language, and this notion helped spark the German nationalist movement, which sought to unify the Germans into a single nation state.^[19] Eventually, shared ancestry, culture and language (though not religion) came to define German nationalism.^[17] The Napoleonic Wars ended with the Congress of Vienna (1815), and left most of the German states loosely united under the German Confederation. The confederation came to be dominated by the Catholic Austrian Empire, to the dismay of many German nationalists, who saw the German Confederation as an inadequate answer to the German Question.^[24]

Throughout the 19th century, Prussia continued to grow in power.^[25] In 1848, German revolutionaries set up the temporary Frankfurt Parliament, but failed in their aim of forming a united German homeland. The Prussians proposed an Erfurt Union of the German states, but this effort was torpedoed by the Austrians through the Punctation of Olmütz (1850), recreating the German Confederation. In response, Prussia sought to use the Zollverein customs union to increase its power among the German states.^[24] Under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, Prussia expanded its sphere of influence and together with its German allies defeated Denmark in the Second Schleswig War and soon after Austria in the Austro-Prussian War, subsequently establishing the North German Confederation. In 1871, the Prussian coalition decisively defeated the Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War, annexing the German speaking region of Alsace-Lorraine. After taking Paris, Prussia and their allies proclaimed the formation of a united German Empire.^[19]

In the years following unification, German society was radically changed by numerous processes, including industrialization, rationalization, secularization and the rise of capitalism.^[25] German power increased considerably and numerous overseas colonies were established.^[26] During this time, the German population grew considerably, and many emigrated to other countries (mainly North America), contributing to the growth of the German diaspora. Competition for colonies between the Great Powers contributed to the outbreak of World War I, in which the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires formed the Central Powers, an alliance that was ultimately defeated, with none of the empires comprising it surviving the aftermath of the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires were both dissolved and partitioned, resulting in millions of Germans becoming ethnic minorities in other countries.^[27] The monarchical rulers of the German states, including the German emperor Wilhelm II, were overthrown in the November Revolution which led to the establishment of the Weimar Republic. The Germans of the Austrian side of the Dual Monarchy proclaimed the Republic of German-Austria, and sought to be incorporated into the German state, but this was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles and Treaty of Saint-Germain.^[26]

What many Germans saw as the "humiliation of Versailles",^[28] continuing traditions of authoritarian and antisemitic ideologies,^[25] and the Great Depression all contributed to the rise of Austrian-born Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, who after coming to power democratically in the early 1930s, abolished the Weimar Republic and formed the totalitarian Third Reich. In his quest to subjugate Europe, six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust. WWII resulted in widespread destruction and the deaths of tens of millions of soldiers and civilians, while the German state was partitioned. About 12 million Germans had to flee or were expelled from Eastern Europe.^[29] Significant damage was also done to the German reputation and identity,^[27] which became far less nationalistic than it previously was.^[28]

The German states of West Germany and East Germany became focal points of the Cold War, but were reunified in 1990. Although there were fears that the reunified Germany might resume nationalist politics, the country is today widely regarded as a "stablizing actor in the heart of Europe" and a "promoter of democratic integration".^[28]

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Language

German is the native language of most Germans, and historically many northern Germans spoke the closely related language Low German. The German language is the key marker of German ethnic identity.^[7]^[17] German and Low German are West Germanic languages closely related to Dutch, Frisian languages (in particular North Frisian and Saterland Frisian), Luxembourgish, and English.^[7] Modern Standard German is based on High German and Central German, and is the first or second language of most Germans, but notably not the Volga Germans.^[30]

Geographic distribution

It is estimated that there are over 100 million Germans today, most of whom live in Germany, where they constitute the majority of the population.^[31] There are also sizable populations of Germans in Austria, Switzerland, the United States, Brazil, France, Kazakhstan, Russia, Argentina, Canada, Poland, Italy, Hungary, Australia, South Africa, Chile, Paraguay, and Namibia.^[32]^[33]

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Culture

The culture of Germany has been shaped by its central position in Europe and a history spanning over a millennium. Characterized by significant contributions to art, music, philosophy, religion, science, and technology, German culture is both diverse and influential. Historically, Germany was not a unified nation for long periods, leading to a wide variety of regional customs and traditions. From the medieval Holy Roman Empire to the modern Federal Republic, German culture has absorbed influences from across the continent and beyond. Key aspects include a strong emphasis on education and craftsmanship, a long literary tradition featuring figures like Goethe and Schiller, a musical heritage from Bach to Beethoven, and a philosophical legacy including Kant and Marx. Germany is also known for its numerous festivals, regional cuisines, and a commitment to preserving its historical heritage while embracing contemporary trends in art, architecture, and popular culture.

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Literature

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German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages, with the most notable authors of the period being Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. The Nibelungenlied, whose author remains unknown, is also an important work of the epoch, as is the Thidrekssaga. The fairy tales collections collected and published by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the 19th century became famous throughout the world.

Land der Dichter und Denker (Land of poets and thinkers) is a phrase used by many Germans to refer to Germany,^[34]^[35]^[36] though it is hardly known in non-German-speaking countries. It is occasionally used to describe certain cities as well (Stadt der Dichter und Denker), such as Tübingen^[37] and Jena.^[38]

Theologian Luther, who translated the Bible into German, is widely credited for having set the basis for the modern "High German" language.

Among the most admired German philosophers and authors are Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, Kleist, Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, Hoffmann, Brecht, Heine and Schmidt. Nine Germans have won the Nobel Prize in Literature: Theodor Mommsen, Paul von Heyse, Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Nelly Sachs, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll, Günter Grass, and Herta Müller.

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Philosophy

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The rise of the modern natural sciences and the related decline of religion raised a series of questions, which recur throughout German philosophy, concerning the relationships between knowledge and faith, reason and emotion, and scientific, ethical, and artistic ways of seeing the world.

German philosophers have helped shape western philosophy from as early as the Middle Ages (Albertus Magnus). Later, Leibniz (17th century) and most importantly Kant played central roles in the history of philosophy. Kantianism inspired the work of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche as well as German idealism defended by Fichte and Hegel. Marx and Engels developed communist theory in the second half of the 19th century while Heidegger and Gadamer pursued the tradition of German philosophy in the 20th century. A number of German intellectuals were also influential in sociology, most notably Adorno, Elias, Habermas, Horkheimer, Luhmann, Marcuse, Simmel, Tönnies, and Weber. The University of Berlin founded in 1810 by linguist and philosopher Wilhelm von Humboldt served as an influential model for a number of modern western universities.

In the 21st century Germany has been an important country for the development of contemporary analytic philosophy in continental Europe, along with France, Austria, Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries.^[39]

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Military

The Military of Germany has historically played an important role in German society and culture. In the 18th century, Prussia rose as a military powerhouse under Frederick the Great. German unification in 1871 created the Imperial German Army, which played key roles in World War I. The interwar Reichswehr evolved into the Wehrmacht under Nazi rule, leading to World War II. After 1945, Germany was demilitarized, later forming the Bundeswehr in 1955 as a NATO force.

As of 31 May 2024^[update], the Bundeswehr had a strength of 180,215 active-duty military personnel and 80,761 civilians,^[40] placing it among the 30 largest military forces in the world, and making it the second largest in the European Union behind France.

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Music

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In the field of music, Germany claims some of the most renowned classical composers of the world, including Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, who marked the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music. Also, Germans developed many Lutheran chorales and hymns.

Other composers of the Austro-German tradition who achieved international fame include Brahms, Wagner, Haydn, Johann Pachelbel, Schubert, Händel, Schumann, Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Johann Strauss II, Bruckner, Mahler, Telemann, Richard Strauss, Schoenberg, Orff, and most recently, Henze, Lachenmann, and Stockhausen.

Germany is the largest music market in Europe, and third largest in the world.^[41] It has exerted a strong influence on rock and heavy metal music. Artists such as Herbert Grönemeyer, Scorpions, Blind Guardian, Rammstein, Nena, Unheilig, Xavier Naidoo, Tokio Hotel and Modern Talking have enjoyed international fame.

German musicians have contributed heavily to developments in electronic music, in synth-pop, electronic body music, trance and hardcore. Krautrock band Kraftwerk are considered to be the pioneers of synth-pop, electro,^[42] techno,^[43] and house music.^[44] Tangerine Dream's "Love on a Real Train" was a major influence on the development of synthwave.

German popular music of the 20th and 21st centuries includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle (Nena, Alphaville), Ostrock (City, Keimzeit), metal/rock, punk (Nina Hagen, Böhse Onkelz, Die Ärzte, Die Toten Hosen), pop rock (Beatsteaks), indie (Tocotronic, Blumfeld) and hip hop (Die Fantastischen Vier, Deichkind). A global trendsetter is the German techno and minimal scene (e.g. Ricardo Villalobos, Paul Kalkbrenner and Sven Väth).

Germany hosts many large rock music festivals every year. The Rock am Ring festival is the largest music festival in Germany, and among the largest in the world. German artists also make up a large percentage of industrial and Neue Deutsche Härte acts. Germany hosts some of the largest goth or dark culture scenes and festivals in the entire world, with events like Wave-Gotik-Treffen and M'era Luna Festival attracting up to 30,000 people. In addition, the country hosts Wacken Open Air, the biggest heavy metal open air festival in the world.

Since about 1970, Germany has once again had a thriving popular culture, now increasingly led by its reinstated capital Berlin, and a self-confident music and art scene. Germany is also very well known for its many renowned opera houses, such as Semperoper, Komische Oper Berlin and Munich State Theatre. Richard Wagner established the Bayreuth Festspielhaus.

One of the most famous composers of the international film business is Hans Zimmer. The year 2020 was designated "Beethoven Year" to mark 250 years since the composer was born.^[45]

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Cinema

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German cinema dates back to the very early years of the medium with the work of Max Skladanowsky. It was particularly influential during the years of the Weimar Republic with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Austrian-based director Fritz Lang, who became a German citizen in 1926 and whose career flourished in the pre-war German film industry, is said to have been a major influence on Hollywood cinema. His silent movie Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the birth of modern Science Fiction movies. Founded in 1912, the Babelsberg Film Studio is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world.

In 1930, Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel, which was the first major German sound film and it brought world fame to actress Marlene Dietrich.^[46] Impressionist documentary Berlin: Symphony of a Great City, directed by Walter Ruttmann, is a prominent example of the city symphony genre. The Nazi era produced mostly propaganda films although the work of Leni Riefenstahl still introduced new aesthetics to film.^[47]

During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder put West German cinema back on the international stage with their often provocative films.^[48]

More recently, films such as Good Bye Lenin! (2003), Gegen die Wand (Head-on) (2004), Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004), and Der Baader Meinhof Komplex (2008) have enjoyed international success.

The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film went to the German production Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in 1979, to Nowhere in Africa in 2002, and to Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others) in 2007.^[49] Among the most famous German actors are Marlene Dietrich, Klaus Kinski, Hanna Schygulla, Armin Mueller-Stahl, Jürgen Prochnow, Thomas Kretschmann, Til Schweiger and Daniel Brühl.

The Berlin Film Festival, held annually since 1951, is one of the world's foremost film festivals. An international jury places emphasis on representing films from all over the world and awards the winners with the Golden and Silver Bears.^[50] The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every second year in the city of Berlin, where the European Film Academy (EFA) is located. The Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam are the oldest large-scale film studios in the world and a centre for international film production.

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Media

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Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with 34,000,000 TV households. The many regional and national public broadcasters are organised in line with the federal political structure. Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, and viewers can choose from a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels. Pay-TV services have not become popular or successful while public TV broadcasters ZDF and ARD offer a range of digital-only channels.^[51] Reality TV is the most popular programming in Germany and a key part in modern German culture.

Germany is home to some of the world's largest media conglomerates, including Bertelsmann, the Axel Springer AG and ProSiebenSat.1 Media.

The German-speaking book publishers produce about 700,000,000 copies of books every year, with about 80,000 titles, nearly 60,000 of them new publications. Germany is in third place on international statistics after the English-speaking book market and the People's Republic of China.^[52] The Frankfurt Book Fair is considered to be the most important book fair in the world for international deals and trading and has a tradition that spans over 500 years.

Many of Europe's best-selling newspapers and magazines are produced in Germany. The papers with the highest circulation are Die Zeit, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Die Welt, the largest magazines include Der Spiegel, Stern and Focus. The Bild is a tabloid and has the largest circulation of all German papers.^[53]

However, the publishing industry is in flux – amongst other things because meanwhile almost 800,000 newspaper copies sold daily are distributed digitally and the number of digital subscriptions is continually rising. Nevertheless, a total of around 38 million people in Germany still read a printed newspaper every day, while around 14.6 million make use of newspapers’ digital offerings.^[54]

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Architecture and World Heritage

Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, important precursors of Romanesque. The region^{[clarification needed]} has also produced significant works in styles such as the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque.

The nation was particularly important in the early modern movement through the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus movement identified with Walter Gropius. The Nazis closed these movements and favoured a type of neo-classicism. Since World War II post-modern structures have been built. Since the reunification of Germany the trend has continued.

The UNESCO inscribed 54 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List.^[56]

Art

German art has a long and distinguished tradition in the visual arts, from the earliest known work of figurative art to its current output of contemporary art. Celtic art and Germanic art both partially originated in Germany.

Carolingian and Ottonian art played a role in the origin of Romanesque art.

Important German Renaissance painters include Albrecht Altdorfer, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Matthias Grünewald, Hans Holbein the Younger and the well-known Albrecht Dürer. The most important Baroque artists from Germany are Cosmas Damian Asam. Further artists are the painter Anselm Kiefer, romantic Caspar David Friedrich, the surrealist Max Ernst, the conceptualist Joseph Beuys, or Wolf Vostell or the neo-expressionist Georg Baselitz.

Within modern day society, contemporary art is a large aspect of the culture. This large community draws in people from all around the world. There are around 500 galleries in Germany that caters to this modern form of art.^[57] Art Cologne is a popular fair that displays contemporary art.

Politics

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The Reichstag in Berlin, the seat of German parliament since 1999.

Federal Chancellery in Berlin, largest government headquarters in the world.^[58]

Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections using the mixed-member proportional representation system. The members of the Bundesrat represent and are appointed by the governments of the sixteen federated states.^[59] The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitution known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both the Bundestag and the Bundesrat; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law, are valid in perpetuity.^[60]

The president, who has been Frank-Walter Steinmeier since 2017, is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates.^[59] The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body.^[61] The third-highest official and the head of government is the chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the party or coalition with the most seats in the Bundestag.^[59] The chancellor, who has been Friedrich Merz since 2025, is the head of government and exercises executive power through his Cabinet.^[59]

Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party and the Alliance 90/The Greens have also been junior partners in coalition governments. Since 2007, the democratic socialist party The Left has been a staple in the German Bundestag, though they have never been part of the federal government. In the 2017 German federal election, the right-wing populist Alternative for Germany gained enough votes to attain representation in the parliament for the first time.^[62]^[63]

A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognized for having the most positive influence in the world in 2011, 2013, and 2014.^[64]^[65]^[66]

Religion

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Christianity was introduced to the area of modern Germany by 300 AD and became fully Christianized by the time of Charlemagne in the eighth and ninth century. After the Reformation started by Martin Luther in the early 16th century, many people left the Catholic Church and became Protestant, mainly Lutheran and Calvinist.^[67] 59.4% of the German population belongs to Christian denominations: 30% are Roman Catholic, and 29% are affiliated with Protestantism^[68] (the figures are known accurately because Germany imposes a church tax on those who disclose a religious affiliation).

The north and east are predominantly Protestant, the south and west predominantly Catholic. Nowadays there is a non-religious majority in Hamburg and the former East German states.^[69] Germany was, at one point, almost in its entirety within the Roman Catholic Holy Roman Empire, but was also the source of Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther. During the Kulturkampf (from about 1872 to 1886) the government opposed the Catholic church.

Historically, Germany had a substantial Jewish population.^[70] Only a few thousand people of Jewish origin remained in Germany after the Holocaust, but the German Jewish community now has about 100,000 members,^[71] many from the former Soviet Union. Germany also has a substantial Muslim population, most of whom are descendants of Turkish workers from Turkey.

German theologians include Luther, Melanchthon, Schleiermacher, Feuerbach, and Rudolf Otto. Germany was also the origin of many mystics, including Meister Eckhart and Jakob Boehme; and of Pope Benedict XVI.

Holidays and celebrations

There are a number of public holidays in Germany. The country is particularly known for its Oktoberfest celebrations in Munich, its carnival culture and globally influential Christmas customs known as Weihnachten.^[72]^[73] 3 October has been the national day of Germany since 1990, celebrated as the German Unity Day (Tag der Deutschen Einheit).

Science

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Perspective

Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, who is credited with the invention of movable type printing in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first computer.^[74] German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Zeppelin, Lilienthal, Daimler, Diesel, Otto, Wankel, von Braun and Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology including the beginnings of space travel.^[75]^[76]

The work of Albert Einstein, Max Planck, and Werner Heisenberg was crucial to the foundation of modern physics.^[77] They were preceded by such key physicists as Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer, and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays, an accomplishment that earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.^[78] Before World War II, Germany had produced more Nobel laureates in scientific fields than any other nation, and was the preeminent country in the natural sciences.^[79]^[80] Germany is currently the nation with the 3rd most Nobel Prize winners, 115. The Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans" features a number of scientists, and is located east of Regensburg, in Bavaria.^[81]^[82]

Germany is home to some of the finest academic centers in Europe. Some famous universities are those of Munich and Berlin, University of Tübingen, University of Göttingen, University of Marburg, University of Berlin, Mining Academy Freiberg and Freiburg University, among many others. Moreover, the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg is one of the oldest universities in Europe.

Fashion and design

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Perspective

German designers were leaders of modern product design, with the Bauhaus designers like Mies van der Rohe, and Dieter Rams of Braun being essential.^[83]

Germany is a leading country in the fashion industry. The German textile industry consisted of about 1,300 companies with more than 130,000 employees in 2010, which generated a revenue of 28 billion Euro. Almost 44 percent of the products are exported. The textile branch thus is the second largest producer of consumer goods after food production in the country.^[84] Berlin is the center of young and creative fashion in Germany, prominently displayed at Berlin Fashion Week (twice a year). It also hosts Europe's largest fashion trade fair called Bread & Butter.

Munich, Hamburg and Düsseldorf are also important design and production hubs of the German fashion industry, among smaller towns.^[85] Renowned fashion designers from Germany include Karl Lagerfeld, Jil Sander, Wolfgang Joop, Philipp Plein and Michael Michalsky. Important brands include Hugo Boss, Escada and Triumph, as well as special outfitters like Adidas, PUMA and Jack Wolfskin. The German supermodels Claudia Schiffer, Heidi Klum, Tatjana Patitz and Nadja Auermann came to global fame.^[86]

Cuisine

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Perspective

German cuisine varies from region to region. The southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia, for instance, share a culinary culture with Switzerland and Austria, like the Schnitzel. Pork, beef, and poultry are the main varieties of meat consumed in Germany; pork is the most popular.^[87] Throughout all regions, meat is often eaten in sausage form. More than 1,500 different types of sausage are produced in Germany. Organic food has gained a market share of almost 6%, and this is predicted to increase further.^[88]

A popular German saying has the meaning: "Breakfast like an emperor, lunch like a king, and dine like a beggar." Breakfast is usually a selection of breads and rolls with jam and honey or cold cuts and cheese, sometimes accompanied by a boiled egg. Cereals or muesli with milk or yoghurt is less common but widespread.^[89] More than 3000 types of bread are sold in bakery shops across the country.^[90] Occasionally, more traditional and heartier Breakfasts, like the Bavarian "Brotzeit" with Weisswurst, Sweet Mustard and Wheat beer, or the Bauernfrühstück are also popular.

It is customary for Germans to have a very large lunch around noon. A typical lunch usually consists of some type of meat or fish, a heavy carb such as potato or German noodles, and a side of vegetables. Due to the increasing number of Germans who work in urban centers, however, many more people are eating simple items on-the-go for lunch such as Currywurst, a go-to quick meal to pick up that consists of small pieces of sausage, french fries, and a spicy ketchup sauce.

The term for dinner in German is Abendbrot which directly translates to "evening bread". As the name suggests, typically Germans will have a lighter dinner that consists of sliced meat, sausages, bread, and cheeses. Also, most dinners eaten by Germans usually include some form of mustard and pickles.^[91] The habit of having a simple, light dinner has become less of an everyday routine for many Germans. Due to the increasing number of people who work all day, it is difficult for many Germans to make the time to have a large lunch. For this reason, larger dinners have become more common. Although, most families still have Abendbrot at least a few times a week.^[92]

As a country with many immigrants, Germany has adopted many international dishes into its cuisine and daily eating habits. Italian dishes like pizza and pasta, Turkish and Arab dishes like döner kebab and falafel, are well established, especially in bigger cities. International burger chains, as well as Chinese and Greek restaurants, are widespread. Indian, Thai, Japanese, and other Asian cuisines have gained popularity in recent decades. Among high-profile restaurants in Germany, the Michelin guide has awarded ten restaurants three stars, the highest designation, while 38 more received two stars and 255 one star.^[93] German restaurants have become the world's second most decorated eateries after France.^[94]

Although German wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany, the national alcoholic drink is beer. In over 1.500 breweries more than 5.000 types of beer are produced.^[95] German beer consumption per person is declining but—at 116 litres annually—it is still among the highest in the world.^[96] Beer varieties include Alt, Bock, Dunkel, Kölsch, Lager, Malzbier, Pils, and Weizenbier. Among 18 surveyed western countries, Germany ranked 14th in the list of per capita consumption of soft drinks in general, while it ranked third in the consumption of fruit juices.^[97] Furthermore, carbonated mineral water and Schorle (its mixture with fruit juice or wine) are very popular in Germany.

Gaming

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Perspective

Germany is filled with inventors of board games, also known as Eurogames, that are played around the world. Popular games include The Settlers of Catan, which features hexagonal resource tiles that generate resources according to the roll of two dice, and Carcassonne with its randomly drawn square tiles that eventually make a medieval map and its notability for its meeples. The fervor for new games continued with Puerto Rico, Ticket to Ride, and Alhambra. In 2008, Germany imported the popular card game Dominion from the US. Today, Germany publishes more board games than any other country per capita.^[99]

The German video gaming market is one of the largest in the world.^[100] The Gamescom in Cologne is the world's leading gaming convention.^[101] Popular game series from Germany include Turrican, the Anno series, The Settlers series, the Gothic series, SpellForce, the X series, the FIFA Manager series, Far Cry and Crysis. The most relevant game developers and publishers are Blue Byte, Crytek, Deck13, Deep Silver, Daedalic Entertainment, Egosoft, Kalypso Media, Koch Media, Piranha Bytes, Related Designs and Yager Development. Bigpoint, Gameforge, Goodgame, Quake III Arena / Defrag and Wooga are leading developers of online and social games.^[102]

Sports

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Perspective

Sport forms an integral part of German life. 27,000,000 Germans are members of a sports club and an additional 12,000,000 pursue such an activity individually.^[103] Association football is the most popular sport. With more than 6,300,000 official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest sports organisation of its kind worldwide.^[103] The Bundesliga attracts the second-highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the world. The Germany national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990 and 2014 and the UEFA European Football Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996. Germany has hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Football Championship in 1988. Amongst the most successful and renowned footballers are: Franz Beckenbauer, Gerd Müller, Jürgen Klinsmann, Lothar Matthäus, and Oliver Kahn. Other popular spectator sports include handball, volleyball, basketball, ice hockey, and tennis.^[103]

Germany is one of the leading motorsports countries in the world. Race-winning cars, teams and drivers have come from Germany. One of the most successful Formula One drivers in history, Michael Schumacher, set many significant motorsport records during his career, winning seven Formula One World Drivers' Championships and 91 Formula One race wins, making him the most gilded driver since Formula One's debut season in 1950. He is one of the highest paid sportsmen in history and became a billionaire athlete.^[104] Sebastian Vettel, another German Formula One pilot, later became the youngest Formula One World Champion in history and went on to win four consecutive world championship titles. He still holds records for the highest number of consecutive race wins and most pole positions in a single season. Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are among the leading manufacturers in motorsport. Additionally, Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans, a prestigious annual endurance race held in France, 16 times, and Audi has won it 9 times. The Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters is a popular series in Germany.

Historically, German sportsmen have been some of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count, combining East and West German medals. In the 2016 Summer Olympics, Germany finished fifth in the medal count,^[105] while in the 2018 Winter Olympics they finished second.^[106] Germany has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in Berlin in 1936 and in Munich in 1972. The Winter Olympic Games took place in Germany once in 1936 when they were staged in the Bavarian twin towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen.

Society

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Perspective

Germany is a modern, advanced society, shaped by a plurality of lifestyles and regional identities.^[107] The country has established a high level of gender equality, promotes disability rights, and is legally and socially tolerant towards homosexuals. Gays and lesbians can legally adopt their partner's biological children, and same-sex marriage has been permitted since 2017.^[108] The former Foreign minister Guido Westerwelle and the former mayor of Berlin, Klaus Wowereit, are openly gay.^[109]

During the last decade of the twentieth century, Germany's attitude towards immigrants changed. Until the mid-1990s, the opinion was widespread that Germany was not a country of immigration, even though about 20% of the population were of non-German origin. Today the government and a majority of the German society are acknowledging that immigrants from diverse ethnocultural backgrounds are part of German society and that controlled immigration should be initiated based on qualification standards.^[110]

Since the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the internal and external evaluation of Germany's national image has changed.^[111] In the annual Nation Brands Index global survey, Germany became significantly and repeatedly more highly ranked after the tournament. People in 20 different states assessed the country's reputation in terms of culture, politics, exports, its people and its attractiveness to tourists, immigrants and investments. Germany has been named the world's second most valued nation among 50 countries in 2010.^[112] Another global opinion poll, for the BBC, revealed that Germany is recognised for the most positive influence in the world in 2010. A majority of 59% have a positive view of the country, while 14% have a negative view.^[113]^[114]

With an expenditure of €67 billion on international travel in 2008, Germans spent more money on travel than any other country. The most visited destinations were Spain, Italy and Austria.^[115] Additionally, tourism analysts estimate that over 65 percent of Germans vacationed for 5 or more days in 2007.^[116] The large amount of travel that Germans partake in can also be attributed to the amount of vacation days they receive. In Germany, employees are given a minimum of 24 vacation days annually, but often employers will give between 25 and 30 paid vacation days.^[117] Germans also like packaged vacations which can be all-inclusive vacations or pre-booked excursions or reservations. In 2018, 43% of all German travel consisted of packaged vacations.^[118]

Leisure

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Perspective

In Germany, leisure is considered a quintessential part of the culture. Researchers in Hamburg concluded that Germans over 14 years old have an average of 4 hours of leisure time per day. Regardless of many factors that differentiate Germans, across the board, the most popular leisure activity is watching television.^[119] Most Germans dedicate their Sundays to leisure activity because a majority of shops and restaurants are closed on Sundays.

Sports clubs are a large part of Germans' leisure time. Currently, around 26 million people in Germany make up the membership to the over 91,000 sports clubs in Germany. Sports clubs can aid children and adults in getting to know people in their community through a shared passion for sports.^[120]

Another leisure activity that Germans like to partake in is exercise. Studies show that most Germans work out at least once a week in their free time.^[121] Additionally, Germany is notable for its longstanding tradition of Freikörperkultur (FKK), or free body culture, which advocates for the public health benefits of full-body exposure to natural elements—such as sunlight, fresh air, and outdoor exercise—as part of a holistic lifestyle.^[122]^[123] In practice, this is customarily expressed through non-sexual social nudity in outdoor spaces—whether formally designated or culturally accepted—by individuals and families at lakes, beaches, parks, and natural settings for naturist recreation.^[122]^[123] Rooted in late 19th- and early 20th-century health reform movements, such as the Lebensreform, FKK promotes regular sun and air exposure—often coupled with outdoor exercise—and regards these practices as beneficial to physical and mental well-being, alongside values of naturalism and body positivity.^[122]^[123] Although distinct from FKK ideology, nudity is also customary in German sauna culture, where mixed-gender facilities require textile-free participation for reasons of wellness and hygiene.^[122]

Nobel Prizes

Ferenc Krausz, born in Hungary, Physics, 2023
Svante Pääbo, born in Sweden, Physiology or Medicine, 2022
Benjamin List, Chemistry, 2021
Klaus Hasselmann, Physics, 2021
Emmanuelle Charpentier*, born in France, Chemistry, 2020
Reinhard Genzel, Physics, 2020
John B. Goodenough*, Chemistry, 2019
Joachim Frank*, Chemistry, 2017
Rainer Weiss*, Physics, 2017
Stefan Hell, born in Romania, Chemistry, 2014
Thomas C. Südhof, Physiology or Medicine, 2013
Herta Müller, born in Romania, Literature, 2009
Harald zur Hausen, Physiology or Medicine, 2008
Gerhard Ertl, Chemistry, 2007
Peter Grünberg, born in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, now the Czech Republic, Physics, 2007
Theodor W. Hänsch, Physics, 2005
Wolfgang Ketterle, Physics, 2001
Herbert Kroemer, Physics, 2000
Günter Blobel*, Physiology or Medicine, 1999
Günter Grass, born in Free City of Danzig, now Poland, Literature, 1999
Horst L. Störmer, Physics, 1998
Paul J. Crutzen, Chemistry, 1995
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Physiology or Medicine, 1995
Reinhard Selten, Economics, 1994
Bert Sakmann, Physiology or Medicine, 1991
Erwin Neher, Physiology or Medicine, 1991
Hans G. Dehmelt*, Physics, 1989
Wolfgang Paul, Physics, 1989
Johann Deisenhofer, Chemistry, 1988
Robert Huber, Chemistry, 1988
Hartmut Michel, Chemistry, 1988
Jack Steinberger*, Physics, 1988
J. Georg Bednorz, Physics, 1987
John Polanyi*, Chemistry, 1986
Ernst Ruska, Physics, 1986
Gerd Binnig, Physics, 1986
Klaus von Klitzing, Physics, 1985
Georges J.F. Köhler*, Physiology or Medicine, 1984
Georg Wittig, Chemistry, 1979
Arno Penzias*, Physics, 1978
Henry Kissinger*, Peace, 1978
Ernst Otto Fischer, Chemistry, 1973
Karl von Frisch, born in Austria-Hungary, now Austria, Physiology or Medicine, 1973
Heinrich Böll, Literature, 1972
Gerhard Herzberg*, Chemistry, 1971
Willy Brandt, Peace, 1971
Bernard Katz*, Physiology or Medicine, 1970
Max Delbrück*, Physiology or Medicine, 1969
Manfred Eigen, Chemistry, 1967
Hans Bethe*, Physics, 1967
Nelly Sachs*, Literature, 1966
Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, Physiology or Medicine, 1964
Konrad Bloch*, Physiology or Medicine, 1964
Karl Ziegler, Chemistry, 1963
Maria Goeppert-Mayer*, Physics, 1963
J. Hans D. Jensen, Physics, 1963
Rudolf Mössbauer, Physics, 1961
Werner Forssmann, Physiology or Medicine, 1956
Polykarp Kusch*, Physics, 1955
Max Born*, Physics, 1954
Walther Bothe, Physics, 1954
Hermann Staudinger, Chemistry, 1953
Fritz Albert Lipmann*, Physiology or Medicine, 1953
Hans Adolf Krebs*, Physiology or Medicine, 1953
Albert Schweitzer*, Peace, 1952
Otto Diels, Chemistry, 1950
Kurt Alder, Chemistry, 1950
Hermann Hesse*, Literature, 1946
Ernst Boris Chain*, Physiology or Medicine, 1945
Otto Hahn, Chemistry, 1944
Otto Stern*, Physics, 1943
Adolf Butenandt, Chemistry, 1939
Gerhard Domagk, Physiology or Medicine, 1939
Richard Kuhn, born in Austria-Hungary, now Austria, Chemistry, 1938
Otto Loewi*, Physiology or Medicine, 1936
Carl von Ossietzky, Peace, 1935
Hans Spemann, Physiology or Medicine, 1935
Werner Karl Heisenberg, Physics, 1932
Otto Heinrich Warburg, Physiology or Medicine, 1931
Carl Bosch, Chemistry, 1931
Friedrich Bergius, Chemistry, 1931
Hans Fischer, Chemistry, 1930
Thomas Mann, Literature, 1929
Hans von Euler-Chelpin*, Chemistry, 1929
Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, Chemistry, 1928
Ludwig Quidde, Peace, 1927
Heinrich Otto Wieland, Chemistry, 1927
Gustav Stresemann, Peace, 1926
James Franck, Physics, 1925
Gustav Ludwig Hertz, Physics, 1925
Otto Fritz Meyerhof, Physiology or Medicine, 1922
Albert Einstein, Physics, 1921
Walther Nernst, Chemistry, 1920
Johannes Stark, Physics, 1919
Fritz Haber, Chemistry, 1918
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, Physics, 1918
Richard Willstätter, Chemistry, 1915
Max von Laue, Physics, 1914
Gerhart Hauptmann, born in Prussia, now Poland, Literature, 1912
Wilhelm Wien, Physics, 1911
Otto Wallach, Chemistry, 1910
Albrecht Kossel, Physiology or Medicine, 1910
Paul Johann Ludwig Heyse, Literature, 1910
Karl Ferdinand Braun, Physics, 1909
Wilhelm Ostwald, born in Russia, now Latvia, Chemistry, 1909
Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Literature, 1908
Paul Ehrlich, Physiology or Medicine, 1908
Eduard Buchner, Chemistry, 1907
Robert Koch, Physiology or Medicine, 1905
Philipp Lenard, born in Pressburg, Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire, now Slovakia, Physics, 1905
Adolf von Baeyer, Chemistry, 1905
Hermann Emil Fischer, Chemistry, 1902
Theodor Mommsen, born in Duchy of Schleswig, Literature, 1902
Emil Adolf von Behring, Physiology or Medicine, 1901
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Physics, 1901

Identity

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Perspective

A German ethnic identity began to emerge during the early medieval period.^[134] These peoples came to be referred to by the High German term diutisc, which means "ethnic" or "relating to the people". The German endonym Deutsche is derived from this word.^[7] In subsequent centuries, the German lands were relatively decentralized, leading to the maintenance of a number of strong regional identities.^[19]^[20]

The German nationalist movement emerged among German intellectuals in the late 18th century. They saw the Germans as a people united by language and advocated the unification of all Germans into a single nation state, which was partially achieved in 1871. By the late 19th and early 20th century, German identity came to be defined by a shared descent, culture, and history.^[4] Völkisch elements identified Germanness with "a shared Christian heritage" and "biological essence", to the exclusion of the notable Jewish minority.^[135] After the Holocaust and the downfall of Nazism, "any confident sense of Germanness had become suspect, if not impossible".^[136] East Germany and West Germany both sought to build up an identity on historical or ideological lines, distancing themselves both from the Nazi past and each other.^[136] After German reunification in 1990, the political discourse was characterized by the idea of a "shared, ethnoculturally defined Germanness", and the general climate became increasingly xenophobic during the 1990s.^[136] Today, discussion on Germanness may stress various aspects, such as commitment to pluralism and the German constitution (constitutional patriotism),^[137] or the notion of a Kulturnation (nation sharing a common culture).^[138] The German language remains the primary criterion of modern German identity.^[4]

Notes

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