Antiquity

Following the post-glacial flooding of the Persian Gulf basin, debris from the Tigris–Euphrates river formed a substantial delta, creating most of the land in present-day Kuwait and establishing the present coastlines.^[25] One of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Kuwait dates back to 8000 BC where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan.^[26] Historically, most of present-day Kuwait was part of ancient Mesopotamia.^[27]^[28]^[29]

During the Ubaid period (6500 BC), Kuwait was the central site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia,^[30]^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] including Bahra 1 and site H3 in Subiya.^[30]^[35]^[36]^[37] The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the world's earliest maritime traders.^[38] One of the world's earliest reed-boats was discovered at site H3 dating back to the Ubaid period.^[39] Other Neolithic sites in Kuwait are located in Khiran and Sulaibikhat.^[30]

Mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 BC.^[40]^[41] Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business.^[40]^[41] The island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 BC.^[41]^[40] In 4000 BC until 2000 BC, Kuwait was home to the Dilmun civilization.^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45]^[26] Dilmun included Al-Shadadiya,^[26] Akkaz,^[42] Umm an Namil,^[42]^[46] and Failaka.^[42]^[45] At its peak in 2000 BC, Dilmun controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes.^[47]

During the Dilmun era (from ca. 3000 BC), Failaka was known as "Agarum", the land of Enzak, a great god in the Dilmun civilization according to Sumerian cuneiform texts found on the island.^[48] As part of Dilmun, Failaka became a hub for the civilization from the end of the 3rd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC.^[48]^[49] After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia,^[50] and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon.^[50] Studies indicate traces of human settlement can be found on Failaka dating back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC, and extending until the 20th century AD.^[48] Many of the artifacts found in Falaika are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations and seem to show that Failaka was gradually drawn toward the civilization based in Antioch.^[51]

Under Nebuchadnezzar II, the bay of Kuwait was under Babylonian control.^[52] Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians in the island's population.^[53] Babylonian Kings were present in Failaka during the Neo-Babylonian Empire period, Nabonidus had a governor in Failaka and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple in Falaika.^[54]^[55] Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship of Shamash, the Mesopotamian sun god in the Babylonian pantheon.^[55]

Following the Fall of Babylon, the bay of Kuwait came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550‒330 BC) as the bay was repopulated after seven centuries of abandonment.^[56] Failaka was under the control of the Achaemenid Empire as evidenced by the archaeological discovery of Achaemenid strata.^[54]^[57] There are Aramaic inscriptions that testify Achaemenid presence.^[57]

In fourth century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great. The ancient Greeks named mainland Kuwait Larissa and Failaka was named Ikaros.^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61] The bay of Kuwait was named Hieros Kolpos.^[62] According to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean Island of that name in size and shape. Elements of Greek mythology were mixed with the local cults.^[63] "Ikaros" was also the name of a prominent city situated in Failaka.^[64] Large Hellenistic forts and Greek temples were uncovered.^[65] Archaeological remains of Greek colonization were also discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Subiya.^[26]

At the time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of the Euphrates River was located in northern Kuwait.^[66]^[67] The Euphrates river flowed directly into the Persian Gulf via Khor Subiya which was a river channel at the time.^[66]^[67] Failaka was located 15 kilometers from the mouth of the Euphrates river.^[66]^[67] By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel dried out completely.^[66]^[67]

In 127 BC, Kuwait was part of the Parthian Empire and the kingdom of Characene was established around Teredon in present-day Kuwait.^[68]^[69]^[70] Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia,^[71] Characene coins were discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka.^[72]^[73] A busy Parthian commercial station was situated in Kuwait.^[74]

In 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan,^[75] which was an alternative name of the kingdom of Characene.^[76]^[77] Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site;^[78] the Sassanid religion's tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz.^[78]^[79]^[80] Late Sassanian settlements were discovered in Failaka.^[81] In Bubiyan, there is archaeological evidence of Sassanian to early Islamic periods of human presence as evidenced by the recent discovery of torpedo-jar pottery shards on several prominent beach ridges.^[82]

In 636 AD, the Battle of Chains between the Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate was fought in Kuwait.^[83]^[84] As a result of Rashidun victory in 636 AD, the bay of Kuwait was home to the city of Kazma (also known as "Kadhima" or "Kāzimah") in the early Islamic era.^[84]^[85]^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]

1752–1945: Pre-oil

Thumb — Marine Museum in Kuwait City. Demonstrates the founding of Kuwait as a sea port for merchants.

In the early to mid 1700s, Kuwait City was as a small fishing village. Administratively, it was a sheikhdom, ruled by local sheikhs from Bani Khalid clan.^[91] Sometime in the mid 1700s, the Bani Utbah settled in Kuwait City.^[92]^[93] Sometime after the death of the Bani Khalid's leader Barak bin Abdul Mohsen [ar] and the fall of the Bani Khalid Emirate, the Utub were able to wrest control of Kuwait as a result of successive matrimonial alliances.^[93]

In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kuwait began establishing itself as a maritime port and gradually became a principal commercial center for the transit of goods between Baghdad, India, Persia, Muscat, and the Arabian Peninsula.^[94]^[95] By the late-1700s, Kuwait had established itself as a trading route from the Persian Gulf to Aleppo.^[96] During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775–79, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boat-building and trading activities.^[97] As a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed,^[97] as the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to Kuwait during this time.^[96]^[98]^[99] The East India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792.^[100] The East India Company secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa.^[100] After the Persians withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra.^[101] The flight of many of Basra's leading merchants to Kuwait continued to play a significant role in Basra's commercial stagnation well into the 1850s.^[101]

The instability in Basra helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait.^[102]^[103] In the late 18th century, Kuwait was a haven for Basra merchants fleeing Ottoman persecution.^[104] Kuwait was the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf,^[105] its ships renowned throughout the Indian Ocean.^[106]^[107] Its sailors developed a positive reputation in the Persian Gulf.^[94]^[108]^[109] In the 19th century, Kuwait became significant in the horse trade,^[110] with regular shipments in sailing vessels.^[110] In the mid 19th century, it was estimated that Kuwait exported an average of 800 horses to India annually.^[102]

In 1899, ruler Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah signed an agreement with the British government in India (subsequently known as the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899) making Kuwait a British protectorate. This gave Britain exclusive access and trade with Kuwait, while denying Ottoman provinces to the north a port on the Persian Gulf. The Sheikhdom of Kuwait remained a British protectorate until 1961.^[91]

After the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, Kuwait was established as an autonomous kaza, or district, of the Ottoman Empire and a de facto protectorate of Great Britain.

During World War I, the British Empire imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait because Kuwait's ruler at the time, Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah, supported the Ottoman Empire.^[112]^[113]^[114] The British economic blockade heavily damaged Kuwait's economy.^[114]

In 1919, Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah intended to build a commercial city in the south of Kuwait. This caused a diplomatic crisis with Najd, but Britain intervened, discouraging Sheikh Salim. In 1920, an attempt by the Ikhwan to build a stronghold in southern Kuwait led to the Battle of Hamdh. The Battle of Hamdh involved 2,000 Ikhwan fighters against 100 Kuwaiti cavalrymen and 200 Kuwaiti infantrymen. The battle lasted for six days and resulted in heavy but unknown casualties on both sides resulting in the victory of the Ikhwan forces and leading to the battle of Jahra around the Kuwait Red Fort. The Battle of Jahra happened as the result of the Battle of Hamdh. A force of three to four thousand Ikhwan, led by Faisal Al-Dawish, attacked the Red Fort at Al-Jahra, defended by fifteen hundred men. The fort was besieged and the Kuwaiti position precarious^[115] The Ikhwan attack repulsed for the while, negotiations began between Salim and Al-Dawish; the latter threatened another attack if the Kuwaiti forces did not surrender. The local merchant class convinced Salim to call in help from British troops, who showed up with airplanes and three warships, ending the attacks.^[115] After the Battle of Jahra, Ibn Saud's warriors, the Ikhwan, demanded that Kuwait follows five rules: evict all the Shias, adopt the Ikhwan doctrine, label the Turks "heretics", abolish smoking, munkar and prostitution, and destroy the American missionary hospital.^[116]

The Kuwait–Najd War of 1919–20 erupted in the aftermath of World War I. The war occurred because Ibn Saud of Najd wanted to annex Kuwait.^[112]^[117] The sharpened conflict between Kuwait and Najd led to the death of hundreds of Kuwaitis. The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–1920.

When Percy Cox was informed of the border clashes in Kuwait, he sent a letter to the Ruler of Arabistan Sheikh Khazʽal Ibn Jabir offering the Kuwaiti throne to either him or one of his heirs. Khaz'al refused.^[118] He then asked:

...even so, do you think that you have come to me with something new? Al Mubarak's position as ruler of Kuwait means that I am the true ruler of Kuwait. So there is no difference between myself and them, for they are like the dearest of my children and you are aware of this. Had someone else come to me with this offer, I would have complained about them to you. So how do you come to me with this offer when you are well aware that myself and Al Mubarak are one soul and one house, what affects them affects me, whether good or evil.^[118]

Following the Kuwait–Najd War in 1919–20, Ibn Saud imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait from the years 1923 until 1937.^[119] The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible. At the Uqair conference in 1922, the boundaries of Kuwait and Najd were set; as a result of British interference, Kuwait had no representative at the Uqair conference. After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudi raiding.

Kuwait immensely declined in regional economic importance,^[107] due to the trade blockades and the world economic depression.^[112] Before Mary Bruins Allison visited Kuwait in 1934, Kuwait had already lost its prominence in long-distance trade.^[107]

Thumb — Celebration at Seif Palace in 1944

The Great Depression harmed Kuwait's economy, starting in the late 1920s.^[119] International trading was one of Kuwait's main sources of income before oil.^[119] Kuwait's merchants were mostly intermediary merchants.^[119] As a result of the decline of European demand for goods from India and Africa, Kuwait's economy suffered. The decline in international trade resulted in an increase in gold smuggling by Kuwait's ships to India.^[119] Some local merchant families became rich from this smuggling.^[120] Kuwait's pearl industry also collapsed as a result of the worldwide economic depression.^[120] At its height, Kuwait's pearl industry had led the world's luxury market, regularly sending out between 750 and 800 ships to meet the European elite's desire for pearls.^[120] During the economic depression, luxuries like pearls were in little demand.^[120] The Japanese invention of cultured pearls also contributed to the collapse of Kuwait's pearl industry.^[120]

Freya Stark wrote about the extent of poverty in Kuwait at the time:^[119]

Poverty has settled in Kuwait more heavily since my last visit five years ago, both by sea, where the pearl trade continues to decline, and by land, where the blockade established by Saudi Arabia now harms the merchants.

On 22 February 1938, oil was first discovered in the Burgan field.

1946–1980: State-building

Between 1946 and 1980, Kuwait experienced a period of prosperity driven by oil and its liberal cultural atmosphere; this period is called the "golden era of Kuwait".^[121]^[122]^[123]^[124] In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time. In 1950, a major public-work programme began to enable Kuwaiti citizens to enjoy a luxurious standard of living.

By 1952, the country became the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf region. This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Iran, India, and Egypt – with the latter being particularly political within the context of the Arab Cold War.^[125] It was also in 1952 that the first masterplan of Kuwait was designed by the British planning firm of Minoprio, Spenceley, and Macfarlane. In 1958, Al-Arabi magazine was first published.^[126] Many foreign writers moved to Kuwait because they enjoyed greater freedom of expression than elsewhere in the Middle East.^[127]^[128] Kuwait's press was described as one of the freest in the world.^[129] Kuwait was the pioneer in the literary renaissance in the Middle East.^[126]

In June 1961, Kuwait became independent with the end of the British protectorate and the Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah became Emir of Kuwait. Kuwait's national day, however, is celebrated on 25 February, the anniversary of the coronation of Sheikh Abdullah (it was originally celebrated on 19 June, the date of independence, but concerns over the summer heat caused the government to move it).^[130]

At the time, Kuwait was considered the most developed country in the region.^[131]^[132]^[133] Kuwait was the pioneer in the Middle East in diversifying its earnings away from oil exports.^[134] The Kuwait Investment Authority is the world's first sovereign wealth fund.

Kuwaiti society embraced liberal and non-traditional attitudes throughout the 1960s and 1970s.^[135]^[136] For example, most Kuwaiti women did not wear the hijab in the 1960s and 70s.^[137]^[138]

Although Kuwait formally gained independence in 1961, Iraq initially refused to recognize the country's independence by maintaining that Kuwait is part of Iraq, albeit Iraq later briefly backed down following a show of force by Britain and Arab League support of Kuwait's independence.^[139]^[140]^[141]

The short-lived Operation Vantage crisis evolved in July 1961, as the Iraqi government threatened to invade Kuwait and the invasion was finally averted following plans by the Arab League to form an international Arab force against the potential Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.^[142]^[143] As a result of Operation Vantage, the Arab League took over the border security of Kuwait and the British had withdrawn their forces by 19 October.^[139] Iraqi prime minister Abd al-Karim Qasim was killed in a coup in 1963 but, although Iraq recognised Kuwaiti independence and the military threat was perceived to be reduced, Britain continued to monitor the situation and kept forces available to protect Kuwait until 1971. There had been no Iraqi military action against Kuwait at the time: this was attributed to the political and military situation within Iraq which continued to be unstable.^[14]

A treaty of friendship between Iraq and Kuwait was signed in 1963 by which Iraq recognised the 1932 border of Kuwait.^[144] Under the terms of the newly drafted Constitution, Kuwait held its first parliamentary elections in 1963.

Kuwait University was established in 1966.^[133] Kuwait's theatre industry became well known throughout the region.^[121]^[133] After the 1967 Six Day War, Kuwait along with other Arabic speaking countries voted the three no's of the Khartoum Resolution: no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and no negotiations with Israel. From the 1970s onward, Kuwait scored highest of all Arab countries on the Human Development Index.^[133] The Iraqi poet Ahmed Matar left Iraq in the 1970s to take refuge in the more liberal environment of Kuwait. Kuwait is the 25th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.^[145]

The Kuwait-Iraq 1973 Samita border skirmish evolved on 20 March 1973, when Iraqi army units occupied El-Samitah near the Kuwaiti border, which evoked an international crisis.^[146]

On 6 February 1974, Palestinian militants occupied the Japanese embassy in Kuwait, taking the ambassador and ten others hostage. The militants' motive was to support the Japanese Red Army members and Palestinian militants who were holding hostages on a Singaporean ferry in what is known as the Laju incident. Ultimately, the hostages were released, and the guerrillas allowed to fly to Aden. This was the first time Palestinian guerrillas struck in Kuwait as the Al Sabah ruling family, headed by Sheikh Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, funded the Palestinian resistance movement. Kuwait had been a regular endpoint for Palestinian plane hijacking in the past and had considered itself safe.

Kuwait International Airport was opened in 1979 by the Al Hani Construction with a joint venture of Ballast Nedam.

1981–1991: Wars and terrorism

The Al Sabah strongly advocated Islamism throughout the 1980s.^[147] At that time, the most serious threat to the continuity of Al Sabah came from home-grown democrats,^[147] who were protesting the 1976 suspension of the parliament.^[147] The Al Sabah were attracted to Islamists preaching the virtues of a hierarchical order that included loyalty to the Kuwaiti monarchy.^[147] In 1981, the Kuwaiti government gerrymandered electoral districts in favour of the Islamists.^[148]^[147] Islamists were the government's main allies, hence Islamists were able to dominate state agencies, such as the government ministries.^[147]

Thumb — Kuwaiti oil fires set by retreating Iraqi forces in 1991

During the Iran–Iraq War, Kuwait ardently supported Iraq. As a result, there were various pro-Iran terror attacks across Kuwait, including the 1983 bombings, the attempted assassination of Emir Jaber in May 1985, the 1985 Kuwait City bombings, and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes. Kuwait's economy and scientific research sector significantly suffered due to the pro-Iran terror attacks.^[149]

Simultaneously, Kuwait experienced a major economic crisis after the Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash and decrease in oil price.^[150]^[151]^[152]^[153]

Thumb — Iraqi Armed Forces tanks in Kuwait City of Iraqi-occupied Kuwait on 2 August 1990 during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait that began the Gulf War.

After the Iran–Iraq War ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$65 billion debt.^[154] An economic rivalry between the two countries ensued after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent.^[155] Tensions between the two countries increased further in July 1990, after Iraq complained to OPEC claiming that Kuwait was stealing its oil from a field near the border by slant drilling of the Rumaila field.^[155]

In August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait without any warning. After a series of failed diplomatic negotiations, the United States led a coalition to remove the Iraqi forces from Kuwait, in what became known as the Gulf War. On 26 February 1991, in phase of code-named Operation Desert Storm, the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces. As they retreated, Iraqi forces carried out a scorched earth policy by setting oil wells on fire.^[156]

During the Iraqi occupation, nearly 1,000 civilians were killed in Kuwait. In addition, 600 people went missing during Iraq's occupation;^[157] remains of approximately 375 were found in mass graves in Iraq. Kuwait celebrates February 26 as Liberation Day. The event marked the country as the centre of the last major war in the 20th century.

1992–present: Present era

In the early 1990s, Kuwait deported nearly 400,000 Palestinians.^[158] Kuwait's policy was a response to alignment of the PLO with Saddam Hussein. It was a form of collective punishment. Kuwait also deported thousands of Iraqis and Yemenis after the Gulf War.^[159]^[160]

In addition, hundreds of thousands of stateless Bedoon were expelled from Kuwait in the early-to-mid 1990s.^[161]^[162]^[159]^[163]^[160] At the House of Commons of the United Kingdom in 1995, it was revealed that the Al Sabah ruling family deported 150,000 stateless Bedoon to refugee camps in the Kuwaiti desert near the Iraqi border with minimal water, insufficient food, and no basic shelter.^[164]^[162] Many of the stateless Bedoon fled to Iraq where they still remain stateless people even today.^[165]^[166]

In March 2003, Kuwait became the springboard for the US-led invasion of Iraq. In 2005, women won the right to vote and run in elections. Upon the death of the Emir Jaber in January 2006, Sheikh Saad Al-Sabah succeeded him but was removed nine days later due to his failing health. As a result, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was sworn in as Emir. From that point onwards, Kuwait suffered from chronic political deadlock between the government and parliament which resulted in multiple cabinet reshuffles and dissolutions.^[167] This significantly hampered investment and economic reforms in Kuwait, making the country's economy much more dependent on oil.^[167]

Despite the political instability, Kuwait had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the Arab world from 2006 to 2009.^[168]^[169]^[170]^[171]^[172]^[173] China awarded Kuwait Investment Authority an additional $700 million quota on top of $300 million awarded in March 2012.^[174] The quota is the highest to be granted by China to foreign investment entities.^[174]

In March 2014, David S. Cohen, who was then Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, accused Kuwait of funding terrorism.^[175] Accusations of Kuwait funding terrorism have been very common and come from a wide variety of sources including intelligence reports, Western government officials, scholarly research, and renowned journalists.^[176]^[177]^[178]^[179]^[180]^[181]^[182]^[183]^[184]^[175] In 2014 and 2015, Kuwait was frequently described as the world's biggest source of terrorism funding, particularly for ISIS and Al-Qaeda.^[176]^[177]^[178]^[184]^[175]^[182]^[179]^[180]

On 26 June 2015, a suicide bombing took place at a Shia Muslim mosque in Kuwait. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility for the attack. Twenty-seven people were killed and 227 people were wounded. It was the largest terror attack in Kuwait's history. In the aftermath, a lawsuit was filed accusing the Kuwaiti government of negligence and direct responsibility for the terror attack.^[185]^[186]

Due to declining oil prices in the mid-to-late 2010s, Kuwait faced one of the worst economic crunches in its history.^[187] Sabah Al Ahmad Sea City was inaugurated in mid-2016.^[188]^[189]^[190]^[191]^[192] Simultaneously, Kuwait invested significantly in its economic relations with China.^[193] China has been Kuwait's largest trade partner since 2016.^[194]^[195]^[196]^[197]^[198]

Under the Belt and Road Initiative, Kuwait and China have various cooperation projects including South al-Mutlaa which is currently under construction in northern Kuwait.^[199]^[200]^[201]^[202]^[203] The Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah Causeway is part of the first phase of the Silk City project.^[204] The causeway was inaugurated in May 2019 as part of Kuwait Vision 2035,^[205]^[206] it connects Kuwait City to northern Kuwait.^[205]^[204]

The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated Kuwait's economic crisis.^[207]^[208]^[209]^[210] Kuwait's economy faced a budget deficit of $46 billion in 2020.^[211]^[212]^[167] It was Kuwait's first fiscal deficit since 1995.^[213]^[214] In September 2020, Kuwait's Crown Prince Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became the 16th Emir of Kuwait and the successor to Emir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, who died at the age of 91.^[215] In October 2020, Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was appointed as the Crown Prince.^[216]^[217]^[218]^[219] In December 2023, Kuwait’s Emir Sheikh Nawaf al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah died and was replaced by Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.^[220]

Kuwait currently has the largest US military presence in the entire Middle East region.^[221] There are over 14,000 US military personnel stationed in the country.^[221] Camp Arifjan is the largest US military base in Kuwait. The US uses bases in Kuwait as staging hubs, training ranges, and logistical support for its Middle East operations.^[221]

In recent years, Kuwait's infrastructure projects market has regularly underperformed due to political deadlock between the government and parliament.^[222]^[167] Kuwait is now the region's most oil-dependent country with the lowest share of economic diversification.^[167]^[208] According to the World Economic Forum, Kuwait has the weakest infrastructure quality in the GCC region.^[223]