Pre-Columbian era

The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths,^[17]^[18] has been inhabited since around 6,000 years ago by Native Americans who are thought to have arrived from Central or northern South America. These Archaic Age people are thought to have been largely-hunter gatherers. During the 1st millennium BC, the Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taino people began to migrate into the Caribbean. Unlike the Archaic peoples, they practiced the intensive production of pottery and agriculture. The earliest evidence of the ancestors of the Taino people on Hispaniola is the Ostionoid culture, which dates to around 600 AD.^[49]

In Taíno society the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. At the time of European contact, the island of Hispaniola was divided among five 'caciquedoms': the Magua in the northeast, the Marien in the northwest, the Jaragua in the southwest, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Higüey in the southeast.^[50]^[51]

Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogâne, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua.^[52]

Colonial era

Spanish rule (1492–1625)

Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named Môle-Saint-Nicolas,^[53] and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492.^[54] Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Taíno.^[55]

The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases, causing epidemics that killed a large number of native people.^[56]^[57] The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507.^[58] Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the encomienda system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.^[59]^[55]

The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512–1513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism,^[60] and gave legal framework to encomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.^[61]

As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on Île de la Tortue) and England.^[55] The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds.^[62]^[54] The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe.^[63] In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them.^[64]^[54]

French rule (1625–1804)

France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola.^[65] The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of those enslaved imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession,^[64]^[54] generating 40% of France’s foreign trade and doubling the wealth generation of all of England’s colonies, combined.^[66]

The French settlers were outnumbered by enslaved persons by almost 10 to 1.^[64] According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 Africans in slavery.^[67] In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000.^[68] In the north of the island, those enslaved were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West Africans in slavery held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism.^[54]

The French enacted the Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms.^[69] Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; at the end of the eighteenth century it was supplying two-thirds of Europe's tropical produce while one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.^[70] Many enslaved persons died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever.^[71] They had low birth rates,^[72] and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery.^[73] The colony's environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners.^[54]

As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (gens de couleur), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African enslaved females (and later, mixed-race women).^[64] Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community.^[64] They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including enslaved persons of their own.^[54]^[64] The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.^[64]

The brutality of slave life led many people in bondage to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as maroons.^[54] One maroon leader, François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s; however, he was later captured and executed by the French.^[64]

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)

Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights.^[69] Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Ogé, resulting in his capture, torture and execution.^[54] Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou houngan (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo – soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony.^[54]

In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control; to build an alliance with the gens de couleur and enslaved persons commissioners Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel abolished slavery in the colony.^[69] Six months later, the National Convention, led by Maximilien de Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.^[74]

The United States, which was a new republic itself, oscillated between supporting or not supporting Toussaint Louverture and the emerging country of Haiti, depending on who was President of the US. Washington, who was a slave holder and isolationist, kept the United States neutral, although private US citizens at times provided aid to French planters trying to put down the revolt. John Adams, a vocal opponent of slavery, fully supported the slave revolt by providing diplomatic recognition, financial support, munitions and warships (including the USS Constitution) beginning in 1798. This support ended in 1801 when Jefferson, another slave-holding president, took office and recalled the US Navy.^[75]^[76]^[77]

With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue.^[78]^[79] The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However, an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture's forces and the free people of color led by André Rigaud in the War of the Knives (1799–1800).^[80]^[81] The United States' support for the blacks in the war contributed to their victory over the mulattoes.^[82] More than 25,000 whites and free blacks left the island as refugees.^[83]

After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors^[84] under the command of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of their army had died from yellow fever.^[85] Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals.^[86] The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.^[70]^[87]

The enslaved persons, along with free gens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generals Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Henry Christophe.^[87] The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, establishing the first state ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt.^[88] Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers.^[89] Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, selling Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.^[87]

Throughout the revolution, an estimated 20,000 French troops succumbed to yellow fever, while another 37,000 were killed in action,^[90] exceeding the total French soldiers killed in action across various 19th-century colonial campaigns in Algeria, Mexico, Indochina, Tunisia, and West Africa, which resulted in approximately 10,000 French soldiers killed in action combined.^[91] The British sustained 45,000 dead.^[92] Additionally, 350,000 ex-enslaved Haitians died.^[93] In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.^[94]

Independent Haiti

First Empire (1804–1806)

The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name 'Haiti' by Jean-Jacques Dessalines on 1 January 1804 in Gonaïves^[95]^[96] and he was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" as Emperor Jacques I by his troops.^[97] Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others.^[98] However, once in power, he ordered the genocide of nearly all the remaining white men, women, children; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population.^[99] Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: Polish soldiers, the majority of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals.^[100] Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.^[101]

Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the slave states, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the Confederacy.^[102]

The revolution led to a wave of emigration.^[103] In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled en masse in New Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities.^[104] In addition, the newly arrived enslaved persons added to the city's African population.^[105]

The plantation system was re-established in Haiti, albeit for wages; however, many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation's politics.^[87] The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.^[106]^{[Link to precise page]}^[87]

State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806–1820)

After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur.^[108]^[109]^[110]^[111]^[87] Christophe established a semi-feudal corvée system, with a rigid education and economic code.^[112] Pétion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class.^[87] President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada.^[113] Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado.^[114]

Unification of Hispaniola (1821–1844)

Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe.^[54]^[115] After Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.^[116]

Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.^[117]^[118]

Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the American Colonization Society and its efforts in Liberia.^[119] Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.^{[citation needed]}

In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the French monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer Haiti. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the state in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs.^[54] By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti.^[120]^[121]^[122] The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti's economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western states continued to refuse formal diplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862.^[54] Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of Haiti's government spending was debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.^[123]^[87]

Loss of the Spanish portion of the island

After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with Charles Rivière-Hérard replacing him as president.^[54] Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by Juan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844.^[54] The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans inflicted heavy losses.^[124] Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general Philippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844.^{[citation needed]}

Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General Jean-Louis Pierrot.^[125] Pierrot's most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops.^[125] Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti's coasts.^[125] President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents; however, the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.^[124]

On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt.^[124] Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic.^[124] With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General Jean-Baptiste Riché, to stage another invasion.^[124]

Second Empire (1849–1859)

On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque.^[54] During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence.^[124] But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security.^[124] Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.^[124]

On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing San Juan. This left only the town of Azua as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them.^[78] The way to Santo Domingo was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.^[126]

Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie on the west coast of Haiti, which they plundered and set on fire.^[126] After another Haitian campaign in 1855, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.^[126]

The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent.^[126] In 1858 a revolution began, led by General Fabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country.^[54] As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Faustin was taken into exile and General Geffrard succeeded him as president.^{[citation needed]}

Late 19th century–early 20th century

The period following Soulouque's overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867,^[127] as was his successor, Sylvain Salnave, in 1869.^[128] Under the Presidency of Michel Domingue (1874–76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of Lysius Salomon (1879–1888) and Florvil Hyppolite (1889–1896).^[129]

Haiti's relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to force Haiti to permit the building of a naval base at Môle Saint-Nicolas, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite.^[130] In 1892 the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin, and in 1897, the Germans used gunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of President Tirésias Simon Sam (1896–1902) during the Lüders Affair.^[131]

In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President Pierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908,^[132]^[133] as was his successor François C. Antoine Simon in 1911;^[134] President Cincinnatus Leconte (1911–12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace;^[135] Michel Oreste (1913–14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor Oreste Zamor in 1914.^[136]

United States occupation (1915–1934)

Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti's economy.^[137]^[138] The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine.^[54]^[138] In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and to enable the debt to be repaid.^[139]

In 1915, Haiti's new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob.^[138]^[140] Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo, President Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The USS Washington, under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.^[138]^[141]

The occupation improved some of Haiti's infrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince.^[138] 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities.^{[citation needed]} Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country.^[142]^{[incomplete short citation]} However, many infrastructure projects were built using the corvée system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians.^[143]^[138] Sisal was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity.^[144] Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control.^[54] Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of Sténio Vincent (1930–1941).^[54]^[145] The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.^[146]^[54]

The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians "expressed in the metaphor of a father's relationship with his children."^[147] Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the cacos under the command of Charlemagne Péralte; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr.^[148]^[54]^[138] During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250.^[149] Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.^[150]

Post-occupation era (1934–1957)

After U.S. forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.^[151]^[152] Few bullets were used; instead, 20,000–30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun.^[153] The indiscriminate massacre occurred over a period of five days.

President Vincent became increasingly dictatorial, and resigned under U.S. pressure in 1941, being replaced by Élie Lescot (1941–46).^[154] In 1941, during the Second World War, Lescot declared war on Japan (8 December), Germany (12 December), Italy (12 December), Bulgaria (24 December), Hungary (24 December) and Romania (24 December).^[155] Out of these six Axis countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941).^[156] On 27 September 1945,^[157] Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (the successor to the League of Nations, of which Haiti was also a founding member).^[158]^[159]

In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with Dumarsais Estimé later becoming the new president (1946–50).^[54] He sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians; however, as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by Paul Magloire, who replaced him as president (1950–56).^[54]^[160] Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti.^[161] The waterfront area of Port-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk to cultural attractions.

Duvalier dynasty (1957–1986)

In 1956–57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies.^[54] In the September 1957 election François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as 'Papa Doc' and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971.^[162] He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite.^[54]^[163] Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as Tontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents.^[162]^[164] In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself 'President for Life'; an uprising against his rule that year in Jérémie was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed.^[162] The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread.^[54]^[162] Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with Baron Samedi, one of the loa (or lwa), or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier's firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid.^[162]^[165]

In 1971 Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed 'Baby Doc', who ruled until 1986.^[166]^[162] He largely continued his father's policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability.^[54] Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc's time, again became a growing industry.^[167] However, as the economy continued to decline, Baby Doc's grip on power began to weaken. Haiti's pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment.^[54]^[168] The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president.^[169] Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country for France in February 1986.^{[citation needed]}

In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers.^[170] Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain from which it has yet to recover.^[171]

Post-Duvalier era (1986–2004)

Thumb — Jean-Bertrand Aristide returns to Haiti following the U.S.-led invasion in 1994 designed to remove the regime installed by the 1991 Haitian coup d'état

Following Duvalier's departure, army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council.^[54] Elections scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes.^[172]^[54] Fraudulent elections followed in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted.^[173]^[54] The newly elected president, Leslie Manigat, was then overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état.^[54]^[174]

Another coup followed in September 1988, after the St. Jean Bosco massacre in which approximately 13 to 50 people attending a mass led by prominent government critic and Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide were killed.^[174]^[175] General Prosper Avril subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.^[54]^[176]^[177]

Avril transferred power to the army chief of staff, Gen. Hérard Abraham, on March 10, 1990. Abraham gave up power three days later, becoming the only military leader in Haiti during the twentieth century to voluntarily give up power. Abraham later helped to secure the 1990–91 Haitian general election.^{[citation needed]}

In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in the Haitian general election. However, his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by Raoul Cédras, in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état.^[54]^[178] Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.^[162]^[54]

In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under Operation Uphold Democracy.^[162] This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term.^[179]^[180] As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results.^[181]^[54] In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.^[182]^[183]

Elections were held in 1995 which were won by René Préval, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout.^[184]^[185]^[54] Aristide subsequently formed his own party, Fanmi Lavalas, and political deadlock ensued; the November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.^[186] The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and human rights abuses.^[187]^[188] Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.^{[citation needed]}

In 2004 an anti-Aristide revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile.^[187]^[54] The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces.^[187]^[189]^[190] These charges were denied by the US government.^[191]^[187] As political violence and crime continued to grow, a United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order.^[192] However, MINUSTAH proved controversial, since their periodically heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians.^[193]^[194]^[54]

Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following elections.^[192]^[54]^[195]

Post-Aristide era (2004–present)

Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004 Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves.^[196] In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.^[197] The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.^[198]^[199]^[54]

On 12 January 2010, at 4:53 pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.^[200] The earthquake was reported to have left between 160,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded.^[201]^[202] It is also one of the deadliest earthquakes ever recorded.^[203] The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a United Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, the Artibonite.^[192]^[204]^[205] In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial, the United Nations apologized in 2016, but as of 2017^[update], they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.^[206]

General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake.^[54] Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.^[207]^[208] In 2011 both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014.^[209]^[210]^[211]^[207] In 2013, the Haitian government called for European governments to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings.^[212]^[213] Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place.^[207]^[214] After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastating Hurricane Matthew, elections were held in November 2016.^[215]^[216] The victor, Jovenel Moïse of the Haitian Tèt Kale Party, was sworn in as president in 2017.^[217]^[218] Protests began on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse.^[219]

On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was assassinated in an attack on his private residence, and First Lady Martine Moïse was hospitalized.^[220] Amid the political crisis, the government of Haiti installed Ariel Henry as both the acting prime minister and acting president on 20 July 2021.^[221]^[222] On 14 August 2021, Haiti suffered another huge earthquake, with many casualties.^[223] The earthquake has also damaged Haiti's economic conditions and led to a rise in gang violence which by September 2021 had escalated to a long-lasting full-blown gang war and other violent crimes within the country.^[224]^[225] As of March 2022, Haiti still had no president, no parliamentary quorum, and a dysfunctional high court due to a lack of judges.^[221] In 2022, protests against the government and rising fuel prices intensified.^[226]^[227]

In 2023, kidnapping jumped 72% from the first quarter of the previous year.^[228] Doctors, lawyers, and other wealthy members of society were kidnapped and held for ransom.^[229] Many victims were killed when ransom demands were not met, leading those with the means to do so to flee the country, further hampering efforts to pull the country out of the crisis.^[229] It is estimated that amidst the crisis up to 20% of qualified medical staff had left Haiti by the end of 2023.^[230]

In March 2024, Ariel Henry was prevented by gangs from returning to Haiti, following a visit to Kenya.^[231] Henry agreed to resign once a transitional government had been formed. As of that month, nearly half of Haiti's population was living under acute food insecurity, according to the World Food Programme.^[25] On April 25, 2024 Transitional Presidential Council of Haiti took over the Governance of Haiti and is scheduled to stay in power until 2026.^[232] Michel Patrick Boisvert was named interim Prime Minister.^[232] On 3 June 2024 the conseil appointed Garry Conille as Acting Prime Minister.