「學習」呢個概念展現咗認知科學上嘅先天定後天(nature versus nurture)爭論:一方面,人有好多行為都係天生嘅,多數嘅人格特徵同智商等嘅個體差異都經已證實咗起碼局部係天生嘅[31];另一方面,人又好明顯具有學習嘅能力,曉按照自己經歷過嘅嘢改變自己嘅行為[26]。例如係根據研究,五大性格特質(Big Five personality traits)當中嘅外向度(extraversion;定義上外向嘅人鍾意講嘢同交際)就有成 54% 係受遺傳因素影響嘅-簡單啲講,有啲人天生就外向,又有啲人係後天學到咁外向嘅,更多人身處呢兩個極端之間[32];先天定後天嘅爭論喺認知語言學當中詏得特別犀利:有學者主張,遺傳因子當中帶有某啲有關普遍文法(universal grammar)嘅資訊,而呢啲基因會左右個腦嘅發育,令到人普遍傾向以某啲方式看待世界同埋組句子[33]。到咗廿一世紀,主流科學界都認同行為係同時受到先天同後天因素影響嘅,但仲係會對「呢個行為係先天因素多定後天因素多」有所爭論[31]。
Ardila, Alfredo (2018). Historical Development of Human Cognition. A Cultural-Historical Neuropsychological Perspective. Springer. ISBN 978-9811068867.
Coren, Stanley; Lawrence M. Ward; & James T. Enns (1999). Sensation and Perception. Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-470-00226-3.
Lycan, W. G. (ed.). (1999). Mind and Cognition: An Anthology, 2nd Edition. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.
Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12385-2.
Tenenbaum, J. B., Kemp, C., Griffiths, T. L., & Goodman, N. D. (2011). How to grow a mind: Statistics, structure, and abstraction. Science, 331(6022), 1279-1285.
Mechelli, A., Price, C. J., Friston, K. J., & Ishai, A. (2004). Where bottom-up meets top-down: neuronal interactions during perception and imagery. Cerebral cortex, 14(11), 1256-1265.
Parkkonen, L.; Andersson, J.; Hämäläinen, M.; Hari, R. (2008). "Early visual brain areas reflect the percept of an ambiguous scene". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (51): 20500–20504.
Chavajay, P.; Rogoff, B. (1999). "Cultural Variation in Management of Attention by Children and Their Caregivers". Developmental Psychology. 35 (4): 1079–90.
Corbetta, M. (1998). Frontoparietal cortical networks for directing attention and the eye to visual locations: Identical, independent, or overlapping neural systems?. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95(3), 831-838.
Thompson, R. F., & Kim, J. J. (1996). Memory systems in the brain and localization of a memory. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences, 93(24), 13438-13444.
Chun, M. M., & Jiang, Y. (2003). Implicit, long-term spatial contextual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29(2), 224.
de Saussure, F. (1986). Course in general linguistics (3rd ed.). (R. Harris, Trans.). Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company. (Original work published 1972).
Martinet, André (1960). Elements of General Linguistics. Studies in General Linguistics, vol. i. Translated by Elisabeth Palmer Rubbert. London: Faber.
Bouchard T.J., McGue M. (January 2003). "Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences". Journal of Neurobiology. 54 (1): 4–45.
Arnaud Destrebecqz; Philippe Peigneux (2006). "Methods for studying unconscious learning". In Steven Laureys (ed.). The Boundaries of Consciousness: Neurobiology and Neuropathology. Elsevier. pp. 69–80.
Ansorge, U., Heumann, M., and Scharlau, I. (2002). Influences of visibility, intentions, and probability in a peripheral cuing task. Conscious. Cogn. 11, 528–545.
Scharlau, I., and Ansorge, U. (2003). Direct parameter specification of an attention shift: evidence from perceptual latency priming. Vision Res. 43, 1351–1363.
Fujita, Kazuo, Noriyuki Nakamura, Sumie Iwasaki and Sota Watanabe, (2012), Are Birds Metacognitive? in Beran et al., Foundations of Metacognition, 2012: 50-61.
Smith, J. David, Jonathan Schull, Jared Strote, Kelli McGee, Roian Egnor, and Linda Erb, (1995), The Uncertain Response in the Bottlenosed Dolphin (Terciops Truncatus), Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124(4): 391-408.
Shields, Wendy E., J. David Smith, and David A. Washburn, 1997, Uncertain Responses by Humans and Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca Mulatta) in a psychophysical same-different task, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126(2): 147-164.