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Georgia (country)
Country in the Caucasus between Europe and Asia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Georgia[c] is a country in the Caucasus region on the coast of the Black Sea. It is located at the intersection of Eastern Europe and West Asia,[12][13][14] and is today generally regarded as part of Europe. It is bordered to the north and northeast by Russia, to the south by Turkey and Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. Georgia covers an area of 69,700 square kilometres (26,900 sq mi).[15] It has a population of 3.9 million,[d][8] of which over a third live in the capital and largest city, Tbilisi. Ethnic Georgians, who are native to the region, constitute a majority of the country's population and are its titular nation.
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Georgia has been inhabited since prehistory, hosting the world's earliest known sites of winemaking, gold mining, and textiles.[16][17] The classical era saw the emergence of several kingdoms, such as Colchis and Iberia, that formed the nucleus of the modern Georgian state. In the early fourth century, Georgians officially adopted Christianity, which contributed to their unification under the Kingdom of Georgia. Georgia reached its Golden Age during the High Middle Ages under the reigns of King David IV and Queen Tamar. Beginning in the 15th century, the kingdom declined and disintegrated due to internal discord and pressure from various regional powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire, and Persia, before being gradually annexed into the Russian Empire starting in 1801.
After the Russian Revolution in 1917, Georgia briefly emerged as an independent republic under German protection.[18] However, the country was invaded and annexed by the Red Army in 1921; it then became one of the republics of the Soviet Union. In the 1980s, an independence movement grew quickly, leading to Georgia's secession from the Soviet Union in April 1991. For much of the subsequent decade, the country endured economic crises, political instability, and secessionist wars in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Following the peaceful Rose Revolution in 2003, Georgia strongly pursued a pro-Western foreign policy, introducing a series of reforms aimed at integration into the European Union and NATO. This Western orientation led to worsening relations with Russia, culminating in the Russo-Georgian War of 2008 and continued Russian occupation of parts of Georgia.
Georgia is a representative democracy governed as a unitary parliamentary republic.[19][20] It is a developing country with an emerging market economy. Sweeping economic reforms since 2003 have resulted in the country having one of the fastest rates of GDP growth. Georgia is a member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, Eurocontrol, BSEC, GUAM, and Energy Community. As part of the Association Trio, Georgia is an official candidate for membership in the European Union.[21] Since October 2024, Georgia has been immersed in a deep political crisis.
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Etymology
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Names of Georgia
Ancient Greeks (Strabo, Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Tacitus, etc.) referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians (Iberoi, Ἰβηροι in some Greek sources).[22]
The first mention of the name Georgia is in Italian on the mappa mundi of Pietro Vesconte dated 1320.[23] At the early stage of its appearance in the Latin world, the name was often spelled Jorgia.[24] Lore-based theories were given by 13th-century traveller Jacques de Vitry, who explained the name's origin by the popularity of Saint George among Georgians.[25] Jean Chardin thought that Georgia came from the Greek γεωργός ('tiller of the land').
Modern scholarship generally derives the name Georgia from the Persian term Gurj (گرج), a historical ethnonym for Georgians. The ultimate origin of this term is debated, though it may be connected to gurğān, a region name meaning “land of wolves.”[26] From Persian, the term was borrowed into Byzantine Greek, Slavic, and later Western European languages.[27][28] The adoption of the term Georgia in Western Europe coincided with increased contact during the Crusades and trade through Black Sea ports controlled by Genoese merchants. The association with St. George, a popular figure in medieval Christendom, may have reinforced the exonym’s appeal in Latin Europe.
The native name is Sakartvelo (საქართველო; 'land of Kartvelians'), derived from the core central Georgian region of Kartli, recorded from the 9th century, and in extended usage referring to the entire medieval Kingdom of Georgia prior to the 13th century. The Georgian circumfix sa-X-o is a standard geographic construction designating 'the area where X dwell', where X is an ethnonym.[29] The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi (ქართველები, i.e. 'Kartvelians'), first attested in the Umm Leisun inscription found in the Old City of Jerusalem, dated to the 5th or 6th century.
The medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth who medieval chroniclers believed to have been the root of the local name of their kingdom. However, scholars agree that the word Kartli is derived from the Karts, a proto-Kartvelian tribe that emerged as a dominant regional group in ancient times.[27] The name Sakartvelo (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, or Iberia as it is known in sources of the Eastern Roman Empire.[30]
State name
The official English-language name of the country is "Georgia" per Article 2 of the English-language version of the Georgian Constitution,[31] adopted in 1995 (although, at that time, the name was specified in Article 1 instead[32]). In Georgia's two official languages (Georgian and Abkhaz), the country is named საქართველო[33] (Sakartvelo) and Қырҭтәыла (Kərttʷʼəla) respectively. Prior to the adoption of the Constitution in 1995 and following the dissolution of the USSR, the country was officially called the "Republic of Georgia".[34][35]
Several languages continue to use the Russian variant of the country's name, Gruzia, which the Georgian authorities have sought to replace through diplomatic campaigns. Since 2006, Israel,[36] Japan,[37] South Korea[38] and Hungary[39][40] officially changed their appellation of the country to variants of the English Georgia.[41] In 2020, Lithuania became the first country in the world to adopt Sakartvelas in all official communications.[42]
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History
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Prehistory
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The oldest traces of archaic humans in what is now Georgia date from approximately 1.8 million years ago in the form of the Dmanisi hominins, a subspecies of Homo erectus representing the oldest-known fossils of hominins in Eurasia.[43] Buffered by the Caucasus and benefiting from the Black Sea ecosystem, the region seems to have served as a refugium throughout the Pleistocene,[44] while the first continuous primitive settlements date back to the Middle Paleolithic, close to 200,000 years ago.[45] During the Upper Paleolithic, settlements developed mostly in Western Georgia, in the valleys of the Rioni and Qvirila rivers.[46]
Signs of agriculture date back to at least the 6th millennium BC, especially in Western Georgia, while the Mtkvari basin became stably populated in the 5th millennium BC, as evidenced with the rise of various cultures closely associated with the Fertile Crescent, including the Trialetian Mesolithic, the Shulaveri–Shomu culture, and the Leyla-Tepe culture.[47] Archaeological findings show that settlements in modern-day Georgia were responsible for the first use of fibers, possibly for clothing, more than 34,000 years ago,[48] the first cases of viticulture (7th millennium BC),[49][better source needed] and the first signs of gold mining (3rd millennium BC).[50]
The Kura-Araxes, Trialeti, and Colchian cultures coincided with the development of proto-Kartvelian tribes that may have come from Anatolia during the expansion of the Hittite Empire, including the Mushki, Laz, and Byzeres. Some historians have suggested that the collapse of the Hittite world in the Late Bronze Age led to an expansion of the influence of these tribes to the Mediterranean Sea, notably with the Kingdom of Tabal.[51]
Antiquity
The classical period saw the rise of a number of Georgian states, including Colchis in western Georgia, where Greek mythology located the Golden Fleece sought after by the Argonauts. Archaeological evidence points to a wealthy kingdom in Colchis as early as the 14th century BC[52] and an extensive trade network with Greek colonies on the eastern Black Sea shore (such as Dioscurias and Phasis),[53] though, the entire region would be annexed first by Pontus and then by the Roman Republic in the first century BC.
Eastern Georgia remained a decentralized mosaic of various clans (ruled by individual mamasakhlisi) until the 4th century BC when it was conquered by Alexander the Great, eventually leading to the creation of the Kingdom of Iberia under the protectorate of the Seleucid Empire, an early example of advanced state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy.[54] Various wars with the Roman Empire, Parthia, and Armenia made Iberia regularly change its allegiance, though it remained a Roman client state for most of its history.
In 337, King Mirian III adopted Christianity as the state religion of Iberia, beginning the Christianization of the Western Caucasus region and solidly anchoring it in Rome's sphere of influence by abandoning the ancient Georgian polytheistic religion heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism.[55] However, the Peace of Acilisene in 384 formalized the Sasanian control over the entire Caucasus, though Christian rulers of Iberia sought to rebel at times, leading to devastating wars in the 5–6th centuries, most famously under the rule of King Vakhtang Gorgasali who expanded Iberia to its largest historical extent by capturing all of western Georgia and building a new capital in Tbilisi.
Medieval unification of Georgia
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In 580, the Sasanian Empire abolished the Kingdom of Iberia, leading to the disintegration of its constituent territories into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. The Roman–Persian Wars plunged the region into chaos, with both Persia and Constantinople supporting various warring factions in the Caucasus, however, the Byzantine Empire was able to establish control over Georgian territories by the end of the 6th century, ruling Iberia indirectly through a local Kouropalates.[56]
In 645, the Arabs invaded southeastern Georgia, starting an extended period of Muslim domination in the region; this also led to the establishment of several feudal states seeking independence from each other, such as the Emirate of Tbilisi and the Principality of Kakheti.[57] Western Georgia remained mostly a Byzantine protectorate, especially following the Lazic War.[58]
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The lack of a central government in Georgia allowed the rise of the Bagrationi dynasty in the early 9th century. Consolidating lands in the southwestern region of Tao-Klarjeti, Prince Ashot I (813–830) used infighting between Arab governors to expand his influence to Iberia and was recognized as Presiding Prince of Iberia by both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. Though Ashot's descendants formed competing princely lines, Adarnase IV managed to unify most Georgian lands (except for Kakheti and Abkhazia) and was crowned King of the Iberians in 888, restoring the monarchy abolished three centuries prior.[59]
In Western Georgia, the Kingdom of Abkhazia benefited from the weakening of Byzantium in the region to unify various tribes and become one of the most powerful states of the Caucasus in the 8th century.[60] In the 9th-10th centuries, Abkhazia grew its influence through several military campaigns and came to control much of Iberia and competing with the Bagrationi. Dynastic conflicts eventually weakened Abkhazia in the second half of the 10th century while in Tao-Klarjeti, Prince David III used his influence within Byzantine Anatolia to empower the Bagrationi. Bagrat III, heir of the Bagrationi dynasty, successively became King of Abkhazia (978), Prince of Tao-Klarjeti (1000), and King of the Iberians (1008), allowing him to unify most Georgian feudal states and be crowned in 1010 as King of Georgia.
Golden Age and Division
For much of the 11th century, the nascent Georgian kingdom experienced geopolitical and internal difficulties, with various noble factions opposed to the centralization of the Georgian state. They were often backed by the Byzantine Empire, which feared a dominion of the Caucasus region by the Bagrationi dynasty, and in some instances fueled internal conflict through aristocratic families seeking more power.[citation needed] However, ties between Byzantium and Georgia were normalized when the two countries faced a new common enemy, the rising Seljuk Empire in the 1060s. Following the decisive Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Constantinople started to retreat from eastern Anatolia and entrusted Georgia with its administration, placing Georgia at the forefront of war with the Turks in the 1080s.[citation needed]
The Kingdom of Georgia reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries. This period during the reigns of David IV (r. 1089–1125) and his great-granddaughter Tamar (r. 1184–1213) has been widely termed as the Georgian Golden Age.[61] This early Georgian renaissance, which preceded its Western European analog, was characterized by impressive military victories, territorial expansion, and a cultural renaissance in architecture, literature, philosophy and the sciences.[62] The Golden Age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and literature, and the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin, considered a national epic.[63][64]
David IV suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats. In 1121, he decisively defeated much larger Turkish armies during the Battle of Didgori and abolished the Emirate of Tbilisi.[65]
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The 29-year reign of Tamar, the first female ruler of Georgia, is considered the most successful in Georgian history.[67] Tamar was given the title "king of kings"[66] and succeeded in neutralizing her opposition, while embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire that dominated the Caucasus, and extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northern Iran, and used the vacuum of power left by the Fourth Crusade to create the Empire of Trebizond as a Georgian vassal state.[68]
The revival of the Kingdom of Georgia was set back after Tbilisi was captured and destroyed by the Khwarezmian leader Jalal ad-Din in 1226,[69] followed by devastating invasions by Mongol ruler Genghis Khan. The Mongols were expelled by George V the Brilliant (r. 1299–1302), known for reuniting eastern and western Georgia and restoring the country's previous strength and Christian culture. After his death, local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the kingdom in the 15th century. Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous invasions by Timur. Invasions continued, giving the kingdom no time for restoration, with both Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu Turkomans constantly raiding its southern provinces.[citation needed]
Tripartite division
The Kingdom of Georgia collapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and five semi-independent principalities. Neighboring large empires subsequently exploited the internal division of the weakened country, and beginning in the 16th century, various Ottoman and Iranian forces subjugated western and eastern regions of Georgia, respectively.[70] This pushed local Georgian rulers to seek closer ties with Russia. In 1649, the Kingdom of Imereti sent ambassadors to the Russian royal court, with Russia returning the favor in 1651. In the presence of these ambassadors, Alexander III of Imereti swore an oath of allegiance to Tsar Alexis of Russia on behalf of Imereti.[71] Subsequent rulers also sought assistance from Pope Innocent XII but without success.[72]
The rulers of regions that remained partly autonomous organized rebellions on various occasions. As a result of incessant Ottoman–Persian Wars and deportations, the population of Georgia dwindled to 784,700 inhabitants at the end of the 18th century.[73] Eastern Georgia, composed of the regions of Kartli and Kakheti, had been under Iranian suzerainty since the Peace of Amasya signed with neighboring rivalling Ottoman Turkey (Safavid Georgia). With the death of Nader Shah in 1747, both kingdoms broke free and were reunified through a personal union under the energetic king Heraclius II, who succeeded in stabilizing Eastern Georgia to a degree.[74]
In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, which made eastern Georgia a protectorate of Russia, guaranteed its territorial integrity and the continuation of its reigning Bagrationi dynasty in return for prerogatives in the conduct of Georgian foreign affairs.[75]
Despite its commitment to defend Georgia, Russia rendered no assistance when the Iranians invaded in 1795, capturing and sacking Tbilisi and massacring its inhabitants.[76] Although Russia initiated a punitive campaign against Persia in 1796, the Russian Imperial authorities subsequently violated key promises of the Georgievsk Treaty and in 1801 proceeded to annex eastern Georgia, while abolishing the Georgian royal Bagrationi dynasty, as well as the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church. Pyotr Bagration, one of the descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi, later joined the Russian army and became a prominent general in the Napoleonic wars.[77]
Within the Russian Empire
The incorporation of Georgian territories into the Russian Empire was a gradual process that began with the annexation of the eastern kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1801.[78] Following the death of King George XII, Tsar Paul I signed a decree declaring Georgia’s integration, which was confirmed by Tsar Alexander I later that year.[78] Russian forces assumed control in 1802, compelling the local nobility to swear allegiance to the empire.[78] The western Georgian kingdom of Imereti was annexed in 1810 after resisting Russian domination; its last king, Solomon II, was exiled and died in Turkey in 1815. Over the next several decades, the remaining western polities - Guria (1829), Svaneti (1858), and Mingrelia (1867)—were gradually absorbed.[79] Adjara, long contested between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, was incorporated in 1878 after the Russo-Turkish War.[80]
Georgian lands were administered through the Caucasus Viceroyalty, governed from Tiflis (modern-day Tbilisi). Russian became the official language of administration, and the Georgian Orthodox Church lost its autocephaly in 1811, becoming a subordinate part of the Russian Holy Synod.[78] Georgian clerics were replaced by Russian bishops, fueling resentment among the population and contributing to the early formation of national consciousness.[78]
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While Russian rule curtailed political autonomy and cultural expression, it also brought relative stability and facilitated modernization of the economy. The construction of the Transcaucasian Railway, completed between the 1860s and 1880s, connected Tiflis to Poti, Batumi, and Baku, integrating Georgia into the imperial transportation network and accelerating the movement of goods, people, and ideas.[81] This infrastructural development enabled industrial growth, particularly in mining (manganese in Chiatura, coal in Tkibuli), oil transport (Batumi), and winemaking.[81] Urban centers such as Tiflis, Kutaisi, Batumi, and Poti grew rapidly and became hubs of commerce, finance, and political activity.
The Georgian nobility was increasingly integrated into the Russian aristocracy, with many serving in the imperial army or civil service.[82] However, the abolition of serfdom in the 1860s, while a formal milestone, failed to provide meaningful land redistribution, leaving most peasants impoverished and dependent.[81] Meanwhile, industrialization gave rise to a new urban working class concentrated in rail yards, factories, and mines. Poor labor conditions and lack of political rights fostered discontent.[81]
Popular resistance to Russian rule emerged early, with rebellions in Imereti (1819–1820) and Guria (1841), as well as smaller uprisings elsewhere.[78] While these were suppressed, opposition eventually coalesced into a broader national revival movement, spearheaded in the late 19th century by intellectuals such as Ilia Chavchavadze. His efforts to revive the Georgian language, restore national history, and demand civil rights laid the ideological foundation for Georgian nationalism.[83]
By the turn of the 20th century, Georgia had become one of the most politically dynamic regions in the empire. The 1905 Russian Revolution sparked mass protests, strikes, and peasant revolts across Georgia, particularly in the countryside and in industrial towns.[78] Though eventually suppressed, the revolution emboldened leftist movements, especially the Mensheviks, who would dominate Georgian politics in the years preceding the Russian Revolution.[84] Georgia emerged from the imperial period with a strong tradition of labor activism, nationalist thought, and a highly mobilized urban population.
Declaration of independence
Following the collapse of the Russian Empire in the wake of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Georgia joined Armenia and Azerbaijan in forming the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR) in April 1918.[85] The federation was short-lived, dissolving in May amid disagreements between the three republics and the advancing Ottoman forces. On 26 May 1918, Georgia declared independence and established the Democratic Republic of Georgia, with Nikolay Chkheidze as head of the Constituent Assembly and Noe Zhordania, leader of the Menshevik Social Democratic Party, as prime minister.
The new republic adopted a multi-party democratic system and introduced progressive reforms, including land redistribution, the separation of church and state, labor protections, and universal suffrage. The 1921 constitution, adopted shortly before the Soviet invasion, was one of the most liberal of its time, emphasizing civil liberties and minority rights. Georgia also pursued a policy of ethnic and religious inclusivity, granting cultural autonomy to national minorities and promoting minority-language schools.[86]
Georgia’s independence was challenged on multiple fronts. The republic fought the Georgian–Armenian War in December 1918 over disputed border regions in Lori and Javakheti, which ended with British-mediated negotiations.[87] In 1919, Georgian forces led by General Giorgi Mazniashvili launched operations against the White Army in the Black Sea coastal areas near Sochi and Adler, though these territorial gains were later relinquished under Allied pressure.[88]
Despite military pressures and internal tensions, Georgia sought international recognition and established diplomatic relations with several European powers. The Treaty of Moscow, signed in May 1920, saw Soviet Russia formally recognize Georgia’s independence.[89] This recognition, however, did not prevent the Red Army invasion in February 1921. After several weeks of fighting, including the Battle of Tbilisi, the Georgian government was forced into exile. Soviet authorities established the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, formally incorporated into the USSR in 1922.
Soviet Georgia
After the Red Army invaded Georgia in February 1921, the Georgian Social Democratic government fled into exile. On 25 February 1921, Soviet forces entered Tbilisi, and a Bolshevik-led government was installed under Filipp Makharadze. Georgia was formally incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) in 1922, along with Armenia and Azerbaijan, and became a founding republic of the USSR.[81] Full Soviet control was only established after the suppression of the August 1924 anti-Bolshevik uprising, which involved widespread repression and mass executions.[90]
In the 1920s and early 1930s, Georgia underwent sweeping socioeconomic transformation as part of Soviet policies of collectivization, nationalization, and industrialization.[81] Traditional elites and clergy were targeted in purges, and the Georgian Orthodox Church was severely repressed, with most churches closed or repurposed.[91] The republic saw the creation of new industries, particularly during the First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932), with rapid growth in textiles, metallurgy, and food processing. The construction of the railway network and hydroelectric plants further integrated Georgia into the all-Union economy.[92]
Several prominent Soviet leaders were Georgian, most notably Joseph Stalin, who led the USSR from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Georgians such as Lavrentiy Beria and Sergo Ordzhonikidze also held key positions. Under Stalin, Georgia experienced intense political repression. The Great Purge (1936–1938) devastated Georgia’s intellectual, political, and cultural elite, with thousands executed or sent to Gulag labor camps.[93]
- Prominent Georgians in Soviet leadership
Joseph Stalin (1878–1953), dictator of the Soviet Union
Sergo Ordzhonikidze (1886–1937), key Bolshevik and People's Commissar of Heavy Industry
Lavrentiy Beria (1899–1953), longest-serving head of the Soviet secret police.
Avel Yenukidze (1877–1937), Secretary of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (1918-1935)
Eduard Shevardnadze (1928-2014), Soviet Foreign Minister (1985-1990, 1991)
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During World War II, more than 700,000 Georgians (or approximately 20% of the republic's total population) fought in the Red Army; approximately 350,000 were killed.[94] Although German forces never reached Georgia, the strategic importance of the Caucasus oil fields made the region a key Soviet stronghold.[95] In the postwar years, Georgia became one of the more economically developed republics of the USSR, with expanding urban centers, higher education institutions, and a growing scientific and artistic intelligentsia.[96]
Following Stalin’s death, the 1956 protests in Tbilisi erupted in response to Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization, resulting in the deaths of dozens of demonstrators. The event fueled nationalist sentiment and alienation from the Soviet regime. Though political dissent was suppressed, Georgia remained one of the more restive republics. The 1978 demonstrations in defense of the constitutional status of the Georgian language succeeded in reversing a Kremlin-backed proposal to downgrade it, marking a rare concession to public protest.
By the 1980s, Georgia faced mounting challenges: economic stagnation, widespread corruption, environmental degradation, and political disillusionment. The advent of perestroika and glasnost unleashed suppressed grievances, strengthened by the activities of prominent dissidents like Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. On 9 April 1989, a peaceful demonstration in Tbilisi demanding independence was violently dispersed by Soviet troops, killing at least 21 civilians, mostly women. The Tbilisi Massacre became a turning point, galvanizing public support for independence and discrediting the Communist Party's authority in Georgia.
As the Soviet Union weakened, Georgia moved rapidly toward independence. By 1990, pro-independence parties had won local elections, and in April 1991, Georgia declared the restoration of its independence.
Independence, civil wars
On 9 April 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia declared the country’s independence, following a referendum in which over 98% of participating voters endorsed secession from the Soviet Union.[97] Georgia became the first non-Baltic Soviet republic to formally declare independence.[98] In May, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, a prominent dissident and leader of the Round Table–Free Georgia coalition, was elected president with 86.5% of the vote.[99]
Soon after taking office, Gamsakhurdia’s presidency was marked by increasing political polarization and accusations of autocratic behavior. In December 1991, a violent coup d’état was launched by opposition militias, including the Mkhedrioni paramilitary group and rogue elements of the National Guard.[100] After weeks of street fighting in Tbilisi, Gamsakhurdia was ousted in early January 1992 and later fled the country. The conflict soon escalated into a broader civil war, with pro- and anti-Gamsakhurdia forces clashing particularly in western Georgia until 1993.[101]
Meanwhile, ethnic tensions in South Ossetia and Abkhazia erupted into full-scale wars. Between 1991 and 1992, Georgian forces clashed with South Ossetian separatists, resulting in hundreds of deaths and the flight of tens of thousands. In Abkhazia, war broke out in August 1992, when Georgian forces entered the region to reassert central authority. Supported by North Caucasian militants, Russian forces, and elements of the Soviet military infrastructure, Abkhaz separatists routed Georgian forces in September 1993. The war resulted in the mass expulsion of between 230,000 and 250,000 ethnic Georgians, the destruction of dozens of communities, and thousands of civilian deaths. Georgia lost de facto control over both territories, which have since remained outside central government authority.[102]
In the midst of the military collapse, Eduard Shevardnadze, the former Soviet foreign minister, returned to Georgia in March 1992 and was appointed chair of the newly formed State Council. With Russian backing and internal consolidation, Shevardnadze gained the presidency in 1995 through new elections held under a presidential constitution.[103] The 1995 Constitution formally established Georgia as a unitary presidential republic with a centralized political system.[104]
While Shevardnadze was credited with restoring a degree of internal stability, his tenure was characterized by widespread corruption, state fragility, and chronic economic hardship. Georgia suffered from persistent power outages, inflation, and infrastructure collapse during the 1990s. In many regions, governance was dominated by local warlords or criminal networks, and state control over law enforcement and customs remained weak.[103]
Despite internal challenges, Shevardnadze pursued a pro-Western foreign policy, seeking closer ties with the United States, NATO, and the European Union. Georgia joined the Partnership for Peace program in 1994 and became a key partner in the Caspian energy corridor, notably through its support for the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline project.[105] These developments brought increased Western attention but did little to improve domestic governance or living standards.
Rose revolution and UNM government
In November 2003, widespread protests erupted over disputed parliamentary elections, leading to the peaceful overthrow of President Eduard Shevardnadze in what became known as the Rose Revolution. The movement was led by former allies of Shevardnadze, including Mikheil Saakashvili, Zurab Zhvania, and Nino Burjanadze, who accused the government of electoral fraud and entrenched corruption. Following Shevardnadze’s resignation, Saakashvili won a landslide victory in the 2004 presidential election and became Georgia’s third president.[106]
The new government launched an ambitious reform agenda aimed at combating corruption, liberalizing the economy, modernizing the state bureaucracy, and reorienting Georgia’s foreign policy toward Euro-Atlantic integration. The Ministry of Internal Affairs and other institutions underwent dramatic restructuring, and petty corruption was largely eliminated. In 2004, the central government reasserted control over the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, previously under the semi-independent rule of Aslan Abashidze, without resorting to violence.[103]
Relations with Russia deteriorated sharply during this period, due in part to Georgia’s support for the United States in the global war on terror, its NATO aspirations, and Russia’s backing of the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Despite growing tensions, Georgia and Russia reached a 2005 agreement for the withdrawal of Russian military bases in Batumi and Akhalkalaki, completed by 2007. However, Russia retained control over the Gudauta base in Abkhazia.[107]
In August 2008, escalating provocations and skirmishes in South Ossetia led to a brief but intense military conflict known as the Russo-Georgian War. After shelling of Georgian villages by separatist forces, Georgia launched a military operation to reclaim control over South Ossetia. Russia responded with a large-scale invasion by land, air, and sea, citing the protection of civilians and peacekeepers. Russian forces pushed into Georgia proper, occupying several cities. A European Union–mediated ceasefire was brokered by French President Nicolas Sarkozy on 12 August. Russia subsequently recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states, a move condemned by Georgia and most of the international community. The war displaced nearly 200,000 people, many of whom later returned, though tens of thousands of ethnic Georgians remained permanently displaced. Georgia formally severed diplomatic relations with Russia and declared the two regions to be occupied territories.
In the years following the war, the Saakashvili government continued its program of modernization, focusing on infrastructure, education, and technological development. However, it faced growing criticism both domestically and internationally for authoritarian tendencies, the concentration of power in the executive, and the use of state institutions against political opponents. Accusations of abuse in the prison system, restrictions on media, and flawed elections undermined Saakashvili’s popularity.[108]
Georgian Dream government (2012–present)
Georgia underwent a significant political transformation beginning in 2012, when the Georgian Dream coalition, led by billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili, defeated Saakashvili's United National Movement (UNM) in parliamentary elections.[109] This marked the country's first peaceful electoral transfer of power, ushering in a new phase of governance under a parliamentary system, as envisioned by recent constitutional reforms.[110] President Mikheil Saakashvili remained in office during a tense year of "cohabitation" with the new government until October 2013, when Giorgi Margvelashvili, backed by Georgian Dream, won the presidency.[111]
Though Ivanishvili resigned from the premiership in 2013, he retained informal control over Georgian politics for the next decade, becoming the dominant behind-the-scenes figure.[112] Under his leadership, Georgian Dream consolidated power, winning both the 2016 and 2020 parliamentary elections, with the latter marred by opposition claims of fraud and months-long protests. A short-lived EU-brokered agreement in 2021 failed to resolve the standoff, and the opposition refused to recognize the legislature’s legitimacy for much of the term.[113]
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During this period, Georgia’s democratic trajectory drew increasing concern. Civil society organizations, opposition leaders, and Western partners criticized the ruling party for erosions of judicial independence, political persecution, and concentration of power. Georgia’s alignment with the West also wavered.[114] While the government maintained formal support for Euro-Atlantic integration, it avoided sanctioning Russia following its 2022 invasion of Ukraine and drew criticism for weakening democratic institutions.[115] The surge in Russian migration to Georgia during the war further polarized public opinion.[116]
In 2023, the ruling party attempted to pass a controversial “foreign agents” law, which many viewed as modeled on Russian legislation targeting civil society. Massive protests forced a temporary withdrawal, but a similar law was reintroduced and passed in 2024, provoking renewed condemnation from the EU, U.S., and UN. Critics argued the law sought to suppress non-governmental organizations and critical media ahead of parliamentary elections.[117]
Despite unmet reform benchmarks, Georgia was granted EU candidate status in December 2023, with additional conditions imposed before accession talks could begin.[118] However, the situation deteriorated following the 2024 parliamentary elections, widely condemned by international observers and opposition parties as fraudulent.[119] President Salome Zourabichvili, who had broken with Georgian Dream and joined the opposition, denounced the elections as a “constitutional coup” and refused to recognize the legitimacy of her successor, Mikheil Kavelashvili, elected by the electoral college in November 2024.
In the weeks that followed, Prime Minister Irakli Kobakhidze announced a suspension of Georgia’s EU integration process, triggering massive street protests, violent crackdowns, and a deepening political crisis. Opposition leaders were arrested or attacked, while the U.S. suspended its strategic partnership with Georgia and sanctioned Ivanishvili.
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Geography
Summarize
Perspective
Georgia is a mountainous country situated almost entirely in the South Caucasus, while some slivers of the country are situated north of the Caucasus Watershed in the North Caucasus.[120][121] The country lies between latitudes 41° and 44° N, and longitudes 40° and 47° E, with an area of 67,900 km2 (26,216 sq mi). The Likhi Range divides the country into eastern and western halves.[122] Historically, the western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while the eastern plateau was called Iberia.[123]
The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the northern border of Georgia.[122] The main roads through the mountain range into Russian territory lead through the Roki Tunnel between Shida Kartli and North Ossetia and the Darial Gorge (in the Georgian region of Khevi). The southern portion of the country is bounded by the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.[122] The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 metres (16,404 ft) above sea level.
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The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,203 metres (17,070 ft), and the second highest is Mount Janga at 5,059 m (16,598 ft) above sea level. Other prominent peaks include Mount Kazbek at 5,047 m (16,558 ft), Shota Rustaveli Peak 4,960 m (16,273 ft), Tetnuldi 4,858 m (15,938 ft), Ushba 4,700 m (15,420 ft), and Ailama 4,547 m (14,918 ft).[122] Out of the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbek is of volcanic origin. The region between Kazbek and Shkhara (a distance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers.[123]
The term Lesser Caucasus Mountains is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.[122] The overall region can be characterized as being made up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400 metres (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the area include the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, including Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and hot springs. Two major rivers in Georgia are the Rioni and the Mtkvari.[123]
Topography
The landscape within the nation's boundaries is quite varied. Western Georgia's landscape ranges from low-land marsh-forests, swamps, and temperate rainforests to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains.[123]
Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of western Georgia has disappeared during the past 100 years because of agricultural development and urbanization. A large majority of the forests that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually non-existent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g. Lake Paliastomi area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 metres (1,969 ft) above sea level and contain species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. Evergreen species such as box may also be found in many areas. About 1,000 of the 4,000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic.[124]
The west-central slopes of the Meskheti Range in Ajaria as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered by temperate rain forests. Between 600–1,000 metres (1,969–3,281 ft) above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech, spruce, and fir forests. From 1,500–1,800 metres (4,921–5,906 ft), the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around 1,800 metres (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) above sea level.[123] Eastern Georgia's landscape (referring to the territory east of the Likhi Range) is considerably different from that of the west, although, much like the Colchis plain in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern Georgia including the Mtkvari and Alazani River plains have been deforested for agricultural purposes.[citation needed] The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85 per cent of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen, ash, and hazelnut.[123]
At higher elevations above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) above sea level (particularly in the Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500–2,000 metres (1,640–6,562 ft) above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 to 3,000–3,500 meters (6,562–7,546 to 9,843–11,483 ft). The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Valley of Kakheti.[123]
Climate
The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation's small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly corresponding to the eastern and western parts of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south.[125]
Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from 1,000–2,500 mm (39–98 in), reaching a maximum during the Autumn months. The climate of the region varies significantly with elevation and while much of the lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters (snow cover often exceeds 2 metres or 6 feet 7 inches in many regions).[125]
Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry Caspian air masses from the east and humid Black Sea air masses from the west. The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation.[123] The wettest periods generally occur during spring and autumn, while winter and summer months tend to be the driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas.[123]
Biodiversity
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Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude, Georgia is home to about 5,601 species of animals, including 648 species of vertebrates (more than 1% of the species found worldwide) and many of these species are endemics.[126] A number of large carnivores live in the forests, namely brown bears, wolves, lynxes and Caucasian leopards. The common pheasant (also known as the Colchian pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of the world as a game bird. The number of invertebrate species is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.[127] The Rioni River may contain a breeding population of the critically endangered bastard sturgeon.[128]
Slightly more than 6,500 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species, have been recorded from Georgia,[129][130] but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about seven per cent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[131] Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Georgia, and 2,595 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.[132] 1,729 species of plants have been recorded from Georgia in association with fungi.[130] According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, there are 4,300 species of vascular plants in Georgia.[133]
Georgia is home to four ecoregions: Caucasus mixed forests, Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, Eastern Anatolian montane steppe, and Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe.[134] It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.79/10, ranking it 31st globally out of 172 countries.[135]
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Government and politics
Summarize
Perspective
Constitution and political system
Georgia is a unitary parliamentary republic governed under the Constitution adopted in 1995 and amended several times, most notably in 2010 and 2017. These reforms transformed the political system from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary model, significantly reducing the powers of the president in favor of the prime minister and legislature.[136]
The President of Georgia serves as the ceremonial head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Since 2024, the president has been elected indirectly by a specially convened electoral college composed of members of parliament and local and regional representatives.[137] Executive authority is exercised by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by parliament and heads the Government of Georgia, which includes various ministers and heads of executive agencies.[138]
Legislative power is vested in the Parliament of Georgia, a unicameral body composed of 150 members elected for four-year terms. As of the 2024 parliamentary elections, all members are elected through closed-list proportional representation in a single nationwide constituency, replacing the previous mixed electoral system. A five percent electoral threshold applies to parties seeking parliamentary representation.[139]
The judiciary is formally independent and comprises the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, and a system of common courts. Oversight of judicial appointments and discipline is vested in the High Council of Justice.[140] The judiciary has faced criticism over alleged politicization and the dominance of a small group of influential judges, often referred to as a “judicial clan.”[141]
Key independent institutions include the Public Defender’s Office, which monitors human rights and civil liberties; the Central Election Commission (CEC), responsible for organizing elections and referendums; and the State Audit Office, which oversees public finance and party financing. Additional bodies include the Prosecutorial Council and the Anti-Corruption Bureau, though their independence has been questioned in recent years.[142]
As of 2025, the country is experiencing an unresolved constitutional crisis. The results of the 2024 elections have been rejected by all major opposition parties and by outgoing President Salome Zourabichvili, who has described the transition as a “constitutional coup.” The ruling Georgian Dream party proceeded to inaugurate its candidate, Mikheil Kavelashvili, as president, and Irakli Kobakhidze as prime minister, but their legitimacy remains widely disputed. Many domestic and international actors, including several Western governments and civil society organizations, continue to recognize Zourabichvili as the de jure president and consider the current government illegitimate.[143]
Political parties and elections
Georgia operates as a multi-party parliamentary democracy with a competitive, though often polarized, political environment.[144] Since the early 2010s, its political landscape has been dominated by two major blocs: the Georgian Dream party, which has governed since 2012, and the United National Movement (UNM), which was in power from 2004 to 2012.[144] A number of smaller parties — such as Lelo for Georgia, Strategy Aghmashenebeli, and Girchi — also participate in elections and occasionally win parliamentary representation.[145]
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Since 2024, Georgia has employed a fully proportional electoral system to elect the 150 members of its unicameral Parliament. All deputies are elected from closed national party lists with a 5% electoral threshold for party representation. The move to full proportionality replaced the previous mixed electoral system, which included majoritarian single-member districts, and was introduced in response to longstanding calls for electoral reform and under pressure from both domestic protests and international mediation.
The Central Election Commission (CEC) is constitutionally responsible for administering elections and referendums. While recent reforms introduced electronic voter registration and digital vote counting systems, critics have raised concerns about the independence of the CEC, especially following changes to its appointment procedures in 2024 that increased the ruling party’s influence over the body. International organizations such as the OSCE and the Venice Commission have expressed concern over the transparency and fairness of electoral processes in recent years.[146]
The most recent parliamentary elections, held in October 2024, were contested under the new proportional system. The ruling Georgian Dream party claimed victory with over 50% of the vote, securing a parliamentary majority. However, the results were immediately rejected by the entire parliamentary opposition and the sitting president, Salome Zourabichvili, who described the elections as fraudulent and refused to recognize their legitimacy. International observation missions, including the OSCE/ODIHR, reported serious irregularities, including pressure on voters, misuse of state resources, and a lack of public confidence in the electoral process.[147]
As a result of the disputed elections, the current Parliament is composed solely of Georgian Dream and its affiliated candidates, with all major opposition parties boycotting or removed from the legislature.[148] This has led to a significant erosion of parliamentary pluralism and has been widely criticized by domestic civil society and foreign partners. The 2024 presidential election, held concurrently and conducted indirectly by a parliamentary electoral college, further deepened the political crisis, with opposition forces refusing to recognize the inauguration of Mikheil Kavelashvili and continuing to regard Zourabichvili as the legitimate president.
Despite a constitutional framework that provides for competitive and free elections, Georgia's electoral environment has in recent years been marked by growing political polarization, accusations of electoral manipulation, and concerns about the informal influence of powerful individuals over the electoral and judicial institutions.[149]
Foreign relations
Georgia’s foreign relations have traditionally centered on Euro-Atlantic integration, with successive governments pursuing membership in the European Union (EU) and NATO, while maintaining strategic partnerships with the United States and regional neighbors.[150] This trajectory was codified in the country’s Constitution in 2017 and framed Georgia as a pro-Western outlier in the South Caucasus.[151] However, since 2022, and especially following the 2024 political crisis, Georgia has undergone a notable geopolitical realignment, marked by growing ties with Russia, China, and Iran, and a deterioration of relations with key Western partners.[152]
Georgia’s early 21st-century foreign policy was defined by increasing integration with Euro-Atlantic institutions. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan and South Caucasus pipelines solidified Georgia’s role as a strategic energy corridor.[153] Georgia joined the EU’s European Neighbourhood Policy in 2004 and signed a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA) and Association Agreement with the EU in 2014. Georgian citizens were granted visa-free access to the Schengen Area in 2017.[154] Georgia also became an aspirant country to NATO and contributed troops to missions in Iraq and Afghanistan, receiving security assistance through the Substantial NATO–Georgia Package (SNGP).[150] In 2022, Georgia submitted its formal application for EU membership alongside Ukraine and Moldova.[150]
However, following internal democratic backsliding and the disputed 2024 elections, relations with Western allies sharply deteriorated. In November 2024, Prime Minister Irakli Kobakhidze announced a unilateral suspension of Georgia’s EU accession process until 2028, citing "external interference" and “Western blackmail.”[155] The decision sparked mass protests and led to a severe political crisis. In response, the United States froze high-level cooperation, suspended the U.S.–Georgia Strategic Partnership Charter, and introduced the Megobari Act in Congress to sanction Georgian officials implicated in corruption and repression.[150] Several EU member states and the United Kingdom also imposed targeted sanctions.[156]
Simultaneously, Georgia began shifting its foreign policy priorities. In 2022, Georgia signed a Free Trade Agreement with China, and Chinese companies have since expanded their role in infrastructure, transport, and energy development.[150] Since the early 2020s, senior Georgian officials have held regular meetings with Iranian diplomats, seeking to deepen economic and transit cooperation as part of a regional pivot.[157] Trade with Russia has also surged since the lifting of the last bilateral sanctions in 2013 and 2022, and Russian citizens have been allowed to reside in Georgia without visas for up to a year. Critics have accused the government of undermining national security and enabling Russian political influence.[150]
Georgia maintains strategic relations with both Armenia and Azerbaijan, though it has not finalized a border demarcation agreement with either country.[158] [159] Ties with Azerbaijan are particularly strong, with robust cooperation in trade and energy. Azerbaijan is one of Georgia’s largest foreign investors, and nearly 80 percent of Georgia’s natural gas supply is imported from Azerbaijan via the South Caucasus Pipeline. Georgia also serves as a key transit country for Azerbaijani oil and electricity exports to Europe.[160] The two countries have expanded their cooperation through regional infrastructure projects, including agreements on green energy transmission corridors signed in 2023 and 2025. By contrast, Georgia’s relations with Armenia have faced periodic tensions, particularly as Armenia has shifted away from Russia’s influence and reoriented some of its foreign policy priorities.[161]
Since the beginning of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Georgia has expressed diplomatic support for Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, backing several United Nations resolutions critical of Russia’s actions—though in the most recent UN votes, it supported a Russia-sponsored resolution.[162] Georgia has also provided humanitarian aid and hosted a significant number of Ukrainian refugees.[163] However, the Georgian government has declined to join international sanctions against Russia, citing economic concerns and the risk of military escalation. This stance has been criticized by Ukraine and several Western governments.[150] In 2023 and 2024, multiple reports by international media and research organizations alleged that Georgia had become a transit point for sanctioned goods, including dual-use technologies and petroleum products.[164] U.S. and EU officials expressed concern that Georgian companies may be involved in re-exporting items to Russia in violation of sanctions regimes. Though Georgian authorities have rejected those accusations, several high-level Georgian political figures have been sanctioned by Ukraine, while reports have confirmed the use of Georgian infrastructure to transit Russian sanctioned goods. A heated rhetoric from Georgian government officials accusing Ukraine of seeking to "drag Georgia into the war", as well as the continued imprisonment in Georgia of former President Mikheil Saakashvili, despite his status as a Ukrainian government official, have contributed to a deepening diplomatic crisis.
As of 2025, Georgia's foreign policy reflects a growing divergence between the government’s geopolitical orientation and the country’s constitutional goal of Euro-Atlantic integration. While Russia continues to occupy Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and the vast majority of Western states support Georgia’s territorial integrity, the ruling authorities have pursued a more pragmatic or neutral stance toward Moscow. Despite public support for EU and NATO membership remaining high, Georgia’s external alignment increasingly mirrors that of non-aligned or Eurasian-oriented states.
This shift has been closely monitored by international observers, who have warned that Georgia’s democratic regression and changing foreign policy could fundamentally alter its status as a candidate for Western integration.
Occupied territories
Georgia considers the regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia to be integral parts of its sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, both regions experienced violent separatist conflicts in the early 1990s that resulted in the effective loss of central government control. The War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) and the South Ossetia War (1991–1992) led to the displacement of over 250,000 people, primarily ethnic Georgians.[165] Although internationally recognized as part of Georgia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia have functioned as de facto independent entities with political, military, and economic support from the Russian Federation.[166]
In August 2008, conflict escalated into a full-scale war between Georgia and Russia over South Ossetia, resulting in the occupation of additional Georgian territories, including the Akhalgori district and parts of the Kodori Gorge.[167] Shortly after the war, Russia recognized both Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states, a move condemned by Georgia and most of the international community. In response, Georgia adopted the Law on Occupied Territories, declaring both regions under illegal foreign military occupation and restricting access to them without authorization from Georgian authorities. The law prohibits economic activity, land ownership, and travel across the occupation lines without state approval.[168]
As of 2025, Russia maintains a substantial military presence in both territories, including permanent bases in Gudauta (Abkhazia) and Tskhinvali (South Ossetia), and jointly controls the administrative boundaries through Russian border guards. The boundary lines are reinforced with barbed wire, watchtowers, and surveillance infrastructure in a process referred to by observers as "borderization." The situation has resulted in frequent detentions of Georgian citizens, restricted access to farmlands and cemeteries, and periodic closures of crossing points, severely impacting the lives of residents in adjacent areas.[169]
The Georgian government continues to regard both regions as integral parts of Georgia and maintains official governments-in-exile for both entities.[170] Tbilisi’s policy toward the occupied territories centers on non-recognition, peaceful conflict resolution, and engagement with displaced populations.[171] The Office of the State Minister for Reconciliation and Civic Equality coordinates Georgia’s strategy for restoring territorial integrity and promoting confidence-building measures. Both Abkhazia and South Ossetia participate in the Geneva International Discussions, an ongoing multilateral dialogue involving Georgia, Russia, the United States, and representatives from the de facto authorities under the auspices of the European Union, OSCE, and United Nations.[172]
The conflicts have led to widespread human rights concerns, particularly the ethnic cleansing of Georgians from Abkhazia during and after the 1992–1993 war. Displaced populations remain in Georgia as internally displaced persons (IDPs), many of whom have not been able to return to their homes. Access for international organizations and humanitarian actors is limited, and monitoring conditions on the ground remains a challenge. Most of the international community, including the United Nations, European Union, NATO, and Council of Europe, supports Georgia’s sovereignty and territorial integrity within its internationally recognized borders and does not recognize the independence of Abkhazia or South Ossetia.
Administrative divisions
Georgia is a unitary state divided into multiple tiers of subnational governance.[173] At the top level, the country is composed of two autonomous republics (Adjara and Abkhazia), the capital city of Tbilisi with special status, and nine administrative regions (mkhare), which serve as groupings of municipalities but do not possess autonomous governance.[174]
Below this level, Georgia is divided into 69 municipalities, comprising 59 ordinary municipalities and 5 self-governing cities, including Tbilisi, Kutaisi, Rustavi, Batumi, and Poti. Municipalities function as the primary units of local self-government under the 2014 Local Self-Government Code, with elected councils (sakrebulo) and mayors.[174]
Each administrative region is overseen by a State Commissioner (State Representative, commonly referred to as governor), appointed by the central government. These regions serve mainly as administrative-coordination units and do not constitute a separate level of elected government.[174]
The Autonomous Republic of Adjara functions under its own constitutional framework within the Georgian state. It has an elected Supreme Council and a local government headed by a Chairman of the Government, appointed by the President of Georgia and approved by the Supreme Council.[174] The Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia is formally recognized as an autonomous entity within Georgia under the Georgian Constitution. However, the constitutional organs of the Autonomous Republic currently operate in exile in Tbilisi due to the lack of central government control over the territory.[170]
Tbilisi, as the capital and largest city, has a unique legal status and is administered by a City Assembly and an elected Mayor. It functions both as a municipality and as a separate territorial unit equivalent to a region.[174]
Corruption
Prior to the Rose Revolution, Georgia was among the most corrupt countries in the world.[176] However, following the reforms brought by the peaceful revolution, corruption in the country abated dramatically. In 2010, Transparency International (TI) named Georgia "the best corruption-buster in the world."[177] In 2012, the World Bank called Georgia a "unique success" of the world in fighting corruption, noting "Georgia's experience shows that the vicious cycle of endemic corruption can be broken and, with appropriate and decisive reforms, can be turned into a virtuous cycle."[178]
Although Georgia has been very successful in reducing blatant forms of corruption, other more subtle corrupt practices have been noted. For example, in its 2017 report, Council of Europe observed that while most day-to-day corruption has been eliminated, there are some indications of a "clientelistic system" whereby the country's leadership may allocate resources in ways that generate the loyalty and support it needs to stay in power.[179] Since 2012 stagnation in corruption fighting efforts can be observed, according to Transparency International.[180] Since 2016 the Transparency International Corruption Perception Index hovers around 56 out of 100 points. In comparison, that places Georgia in the top 50 out of 180 countries, among Central European and Mediterranean EU member states.[181]
Human rights and freedom
Human rights in Georgia are guaranteed by the country's constitution. There is an independent human rights public defender elected by the Parliament of Georgia to ensure such rights are enforced.[182] Georgia has ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2005. NGO "Tolerance", in its alternative report about its implementation, speaks of a rapid decrease in the number of Azerbaijani schools and cases of appointing headmasters to Azerbaijani schools who do not speak the Azerbaijani language.[183]
The government came under criticism for its alleged use of excessive force on 26 May 2011 when it dispersed protesters led by Nino Burjanadze, among others, with tear gas and rubber bullets after they refused to clear Rustaveli Avenue for an independence day parade despite the expiration of their demonstration permit and despite being offered to choose an alternative venue.[184][185][186][187] While human rights activists maintained that the protests were peaceful, the government pointed out that many protesters were masked and armed with heavy sticks and Molotov cocktails.[188] Georgian opposition leader Nino Burjanadze said the accusations of planning a coup were baseless, and that the protesters' actions were legitimate.[187][189]
Since independence, Georgia maintained harsh policies against drugs, handing out lengthy sentences even for marijuana use. This came under criticism from human rights activists[190] and led to protests.[191] In response to lawsuits from civil society organizations, in 2018 the Constitutional Court of Georgia ruled that "consumption of marijuana is an action protected by the right to free personality"[192] and that "[Marijuana] can only harm the user's health, making that user him/herself responsible for the outcome. The responsibility for such actions does not cause dangerous consequences for the public."[193] With this ruling, Georgia became one of the first countries in the world to legalize cannabis, although using the drug in the presence of children is still illegal and punishable by fines or imprisonment.[194] Georgian prisons tend to be overcrowded with poor living conditions.[195][196]
LGBT individuals in Georgia frequently face harassment and violence.[197] Minor protections exist against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. Since 2008 transgender people had been allowed to change their gender marker following sex reassignment surgery. However, a bill passed in 2024 seeks to remove many protections from LGBT people.[198][199][200] The European Union, and various human rights organizations have condemned the legislation.[198][201][202] In 2024, Georgian President Salome Zourabichvili condemned the high-profile murder of Kesaria Abramidze, a transgender woman, and subsequently attended her funeral to pay respects.[203][204] The law prohibits both surgeries (or other manipulations) for changing a gender and indication of another gender in state-issued ID documents, among other things.[205]
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Economy
Summarize
Perspective
Georgia
Countries with whom Georgia signed Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
Countries with whom Georgia has General Schemes of Preference (GSP)
Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires since ancient times, largely due its location on the Black Sea and later on the historical Silk Road. Gold, silver, copper and iron have been mined in the Caucasus Mountains. Georgian wine making is a very old tradition and a key branch of the country's economy. The country has sizeable hydropower resources.[206] Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography.
For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the Soviet model of command economy. Since the fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to a free market economy. As with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.[207]
Since the early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007, Georgia's real GDP growth rate reached 12 per cent, making Georgia one of the fastest-growing economies in Eastern Europe. Georgia has become more integrated into the global trading network: its 2015 imports and exports account for 50% and 21% of GDP respectively.[208] Georgia's main imports are vehicles, ores, fossil fuels and pharmaceuticals. Main exports are ores, ferro-alloys, vehicles, wines, mineral waters and fertilizers.[209][210] The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms of ease of doing business,[211] and by 2020 further improved its position to 6th in the world.[212] As of 2021, it ranked 12th in the world for economic freedom. In 2019, Georgia ranked 61st on the Human Development Index (HDI). Between 2000 and 2019, Georgia's HDI score improved by 17.7%.[213] Of factors contributing to HDI, education had the most positive influence[214] as Georgia ranks in the top quintile in terms of education.
Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through Batumi and Poti ports, Baku–Tbilisi–Kars Railway line, an oil pipeline from Baku through Tbilisi to Ceyhan, the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline.[215]
Since coming to power the Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things a flat income tax was introduced in 2004.[216] As a result, budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large budget deficit has turned into a surplus.[217][218]
As of 2001, 54 per cent of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34 per cent and by 2015 to 10.1 per cent.[219] In 2015, the average monthly income of a household was 1,022.3₾ (about $426).[220] 2015 calculations place Georgia's nominal GDP at US$13.98 billion.[221] Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted to services (as of 2016[update], representing 59.4 per cent of GDP), moving away from the agricultural sector (6.1 per cent).[222] Since 2014, unemployment has been gradually decreasing each year but remained in double digits and worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic.[223] A perception of economic stagnation led to a 2019 survey of 1,500 residents finding unemployment was considered a significant problem by 73% of respondents, with 49% reporting their income had decreased over the prior year.[224]
Georgia's telecommunications infrastructure is ranked the last among its bordering neighbors in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Georgia ranked number 58 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking,[225] up from 60 in 2015.[226] Georgia was ranked 57th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[227]
Tourism
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Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Georgian economy. In 2016, over 2.7 million tourists brought approximately US$2.16 billion to the country.[228] In 2019, the number of international arrivals reached a record high of 9.3 million people.[229] with foreign exchange income in the year's first three-quarters amounting to over US$3 billion. The country plans to host 11 million visitors by 2025 with annual revenues reaching US$6.6 billion.[230] According to the government, there are 103 resorts in different climatic zones in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2,000 mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati Monastery, historical monuments of Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti).[231] Other tourist attractions are Cave City, Ananuri Castle/Church, Sighnaghi and Mount Kazbek. In 2018, more than 1.4 million tourists from Russia visited Georgia.[232]
Transport
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Transport in Georgia is provided by rail, road, ferry, and air. The total length of roads in Georgia, excluding the occupied territories, is 21,110 kilometres (13,120 mi) and railways – 1,576 km (979 mi).[233] Positioned in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key country through which energy imports to the European Union from neighboring Azerbaijan pass.[citation needed]
The Georgian railways represent an important transport artery for the Caucasus, as they make up the largest proportion of a route linking the Black and Caspian Seas. In turn, this has allowed them to benefit in recent years from increased energy exports from neighbouring Azerbaijan to the European Union, Ukraine, and Turkey.[234] Passenger services are operated by the state-owned Georgian Railway while freight operations are carried out by a number of licensed operators. Since 2004, the Georgian Railways have been undergoing a rolling programme of fleet-renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at making the service provided more efficient and comfortable for passengers.[235] Infrastructural development has also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reorganization in the near future.[236] Additional projects also include the construction of the economically important Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which was opened on 30 October 2017 and connects much of the Caucasus with Turkey by standard gauge railway.[237][238]
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Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for transport of freight. Georgia currently has four international airports, the largest of which is by far Tbilisi International Airport, hub for Georgian Airways, which offers connections to many large European cities. Other airports in the country are largely underdeveloped or lack scheduled traffic, although, as of late, efforts have been made to solve both these problems.[239] There are a number of seaports along Georgia's Black Sea coast, the largest and most busy of which is the Port of Batumi; while the town is itself a seaside resort, the port is a major cargo terminal in the Caucasus and is often used by neighbouring Azerbaijan as a transit point for making energy deliveries to Europe. Scheduled and chartered passenger ferry services link Georgia with Bulgaria,[240] Romania, Turkey and Ukraine.[241]
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Demographics
Summarize
Perspective
Like most native Caucasian peoples, the Georgians do not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or Asia. The Georgian language, the most pervasive of the Kartvelian languages, is not Indo-European, Turkic, or Semitic. The present-day Georgian or Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion of indigenous inhabitants with various immigrants who moved into South Caucasus from Anatolia in remote antiquity.[243]
Preliminary results of 2024 census indicates that the population is approximately 3,914,000 as of November 2024,[8][e] an increse from 3,713,804 in the previous census in October 2014.[244][e] The population declined by 40,000 in 2021, a reversal of the trend towards stabilization of the last decade and, for the first time since independence, the population was recorded to be below 3.7 million. According to the 2014 census, Ethnic Georgians form about 86.8 percent of the population, while the remainder includes ethnic groups such as Abkhazians, Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Greeks, Jews, Kists, Ossetians, Russians, Ukrainians, Yezidis and others.[244][e] The Georgian Jews are one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. According to the 1926 census there were 27,728 Jews in Georgia.[245][f] Georgia was also once home to significant ethnic German communities, numbering 11,394 according to the 1926 census.[245][g] Most of them were deported during World War II.[248]
The 2014 census, carried out in collaboration with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), found a population gap of approximately 700,000 compared to the 2014 data from the National Statistical Office of Georgia, Geostat, which was cumulatively built on the 2002 census. Consecutive research estimated the 2002 census to be inflated by 8 to 9 percent,[249] which affected the annually updated population estimates in subsequent years. One explanation put forward by UNFPA is that families of emigrants continued to list them in 2002 as residents for fear of losing certain rights or benefits. Also, the population registration system from birth to death was non-functional. It was not until around 2010 that parts of the system became reliable again. With the support of the UNFPA, the demographic data for the period 1994–2014 has been retro-projected.[250] On the basis of that back-projection, Geostat has corrected its data for these years.
The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3 percent of the population,[251] 52,000 Ukrainians and 100,000 Greeks in Georgia.[252] The population of Georgia, including the breakaway regions, has declined by more than 1 million due to net emigration in the period 1990–2010.[253][252] Other factors in the population decline include birth-death deficits for the period 1995–2010 and the exclusion of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from the statistics. Russia received by far the most migrants from Georgia. According to United Nations data, this totaled 625,000 by 2000, declining to 450,000 by 2019.[254] Initially, the out-migration was driven by non-Georgian ethnicities, but increasing numbers of Georgians emigrated as well,[255] due to the war, the crisis-ridden 1990s, and the subsequent bad economic outlook. The 2010 Russian census recorded about 158,000 ethnic Georgians living in Russia,[256] with approximately 40,000 living in Moscow by 2014.[257] There were 184 thousand immigrants in Georgia in 2014 with most of them hailing from Russia (51.6%), Greece (8.3%), Ukraine (8.11%), Germany (4.3%), and Armenia (3.8%).[258][e]
In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, violent separatist conflicts broke out in the autonomous region of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region. Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly to Russia's North Ossetia.[259] On the other hand, at least 160,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the breakout of hostilities in 1993.[260] Of the Meskhetian Turks who were forcibly relocated in 1944, only a tiny fraction returned to Georgia as of 2008[update].[261]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Georgia is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5. Differences between their scores are minimal. With a score under 5, Georgia has a level of hunger that is low.[262]
The most widespread language group is the Kartvelian family, which includes Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian and Laz.[263][264][265][266][267][268] The official language of Georgia is Georgian, with Abkhaz having official status within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian is the primary language of 87.7 per cent of the population, followed by 6.2 per cent speaking Azerbaijani, 3.9 per cent Armenian, 1.2 per cent Russian, and 1 per cent other languages.[269][e]
Religion
- Orthodox Christian (83.4%)
- Muslim (10.7%)
- Armenian Apostolic (2.90%)
- Roman Catholic (0.50%)
- Others (2.50%)
Today, 83.4 percent of the population practices Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with the majority of these adhering to the national Georgian Orthodox Church.[271][e] The Georgian Orthodox Church is one of the world's oldest Christian churches, and claims apostolic foundation by Saint Andrew.[272] In the first half of the 4th century, Christianity was adopted as the state religion of Iberia (present-day eastern Georgia), following the missionary work of Saint Nino of Cappadocia.[273][274] The Church gained autocephaly during the early Middle Ages; it was abolished during the Russian domination of the country, restored in 1917 and fully recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1989.[275]
The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is officially recognized in the Constitution of Georgia and the Concordat of 2002, although religious institutions are separate from the state.[citation needed]
Religious minorities of Georgia include Muslims (10.7 percent), Armenian Christians (2.9 percent) and Roman Catholics (0.5 percent).[271][e] 0.7 percent of those recorded in the 2014 census declared themselves to be adherents of other religions, 1.2 percent refused or did not state their religion and 0.5 percent declared no religion at all.[271]
Islam is represented by both Azerbaijani Shia Muslims (in the south-east), ethnic Georgian Sunni Muslims in Adjara, Chechen sub-ethnic group of Sunni Kists in the Pankisi Gorge, and Laz-speaking Sunni Muslims as well as Sunni Meskhetian Turks along the border with Turkey. In Abkhazia, a minority of the Abkhaz population is also Sunni Muslim. There are also smaller communities of Greek Muslims (of Pontic Greek origin) and Armenian Muslims, both of whom are descended from Ottoman-era converts to Turkish Islam from Eastern Anatolia who settled in Georgia following the Lala Mustafa Pasha's Caucasian campaign that led to the Ottoman conquest of the country in 1578. Georgian Jews trace the history of their community to the 6th century BC[276] but due to immigration to Israel, by the early 2000s their numbers had dwindled to several thousand.[277][278]
Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia,[279] there have been instances of religious discrimination and violence against "nontraditional faiths", such as Jehovah's Witnesses, by followers of the defrocked Orthodox priest Basil Mkalavishvili.[280]
In addition to traditional religious organizations, Georgia retains secular and irreligious segments of society (0.5 percent),[281] as well as a significant portion of religiously affiliated individuals who do not actively practice their faith.[282]
Education
The education system of Georgia has undergone sweeping, though controversial, modernization since 2004.[283][284] Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14.[285] The school system is divided into elementary (six years; ages 6–12), basic (three years; ages 12–15), and secondary (three years; ages 15–18), or alternatively vocational studies (two years). Access to higher education is given to students who have gained a secondary school certificate. Only those students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of the scores received at the exams.[286]
Most of these institutions offer three levels of study: a bachelor's programme (three to four years); a master's programme (two years), and a doctoral programme (three years). There is also a certified specialist's programme that represents a single-level higher education programme lasting from three to six years.[285][287] As of 2016[update], 75 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.[288] Gross primary enrolment ratio was 117 percent for the period of 2012–2014, the 2nd highest in Europe after Sweden.[289]
Tbilisi has become the main artery of the Georgian educational system, particularly since the creation of the First Georgian Republic in 1918 permitted the establishment of modern, Georgian-language educational institutions. Tbilisi is home to several major institutions of higher education in Georgia, notably the Tbilisi State Medical University, which was founded as Tbilisi Medical Institute in 1918, and the Tbilisi State University (TSU), which was established in 1918 and remains the oldest university in the entire Caucasus region.[290] The number of faculty and staff (collaborators) at TSU is approximately 5,000, with over 35,000 students enrolled. The following four universities are also located in Tbilisi: Georgian Technical University,[291] which is Georgia's main and largest technical university, The University of Georgia (Tbilisi),[292] as well as Caucasus University[293] and Free University of Tbilisi.[294]
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Culture
Summarize
Perspective
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Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years from its foundations in the Iberian and Colchian civilizations.[295] Georgian culture enjoyed a renaissance and golden age of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century.[296] Georgian culture was influenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the various Iranian empires (notably the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian, Safavid, and Qajar empires),[297][298][299][300] and later, since the 19th century, by the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.[301]
This long history has provided a national narrative which encompasses the successful preservation of unique culture and identity in a consistent territory, despite external pressures. Christianity and the Georgian language are particularly important national identifiers.[302] These cultural, religious, and later political attributes are associated with a European and Western identity, based on a national perception of these attributes that contrasts with surrounding powers.[301][302][303][304] This self-identity is stronger among the dominant ethnic Georgian population than in the country's minority groups.[304]
Georgia is known for its folklore, traditional music, dances, theatre, cinema, and art. Notable painters from the 20th century include Niko Pirosmani, Lado Gudiashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; notable ballet choreographers include George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani, and Nino Ananiashvili; notable poets include Galaktion Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and notable theatre and film directors include Robert Sturua, Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia, and Otar Ioseliani.[305]
Architecture and arts
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Georgian architecture has been influenced by many civilizations. There are several architectural styles for castles, towers, fortifications and churches. The Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of Shatili in Khevsureti, are some of the finest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture. Other architectural features of Georgia include Rustaveli Avenue in Tbilisi and the Old Town District.[citation needed]
Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most notable aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines the classical dome style with the original basilica style, forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia: Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), Iviron monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century). One of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian artists was primitivist painter Niko Pirosmani.[306]
Literature
The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the foundations of the romantics and novelists of the modern era such as Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili, Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, and Vazha-Pshavela.[305] The Georgian language is written in three unique scripts which, according to traditional accounts, were invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC.[307][308]
Media
Television, magazines, and newspapers in Georgia are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Georgia guarantees freedom of speech.[citation needed] The media environment of Georgia remains the freest and most diverse in the South Caucasus,[309] despite the long-term politicization and polarization affecting the sector. The political struggle for control over the public broadcaster has left it without a direction in 2014 too.[310]
Music
Georgia has an ancient musical tradition, which is primarily known for its early development of polyphony. Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances.[citation needed] Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass background in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partially improvised version in western Georgia.[311] The Georgian folk song "Chakrulo" was one of 27 musical compositions included on the Voyager Golden Records that were sent into space on Voyager 2 on 20 August 1977.[312]
Cuisine
Georgian cuisine and wine have evolved through the centuries, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most unusual traditions of dining is supra, or Georgian table, which is also a way of socializing with friends and family. The head of supra is known as tamada. He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example, khinkali (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, and khachapuri, mainly from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara.[313]
Wine
Georgia is one of the oldest wine-producing countries in the world. Archaeology indicates that fertile valleys and slopes in and around Georgia have been home to grapevine cultivation and neolithic wine production (Georgian: ღვინო, ɣvino) for millennia.[314][315][316][317] Local traditions associated with wine are entwined with its national identity.[314] In 2013, UNESCO added the ancient traditional Georgian winemaking method using the Kvevri clay jars to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.[314][318]
Georgia's moderate climate and moist air, influenced by the Black Sea, provide the best conditions for vine cultivation. The soil in vineyards is so intensively cultivated that the grapevines grow up the trunks of fruit trees, eventually hanging down along the fruit when they ripen. This method of cultivation is called maglari.[319] Among the best-known Georgian wine regions are Kakheti (further divided into the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli), Kartli, Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, Adjara and Abkhazia.
Georgian wine has been a contentious issue in recent relationships with Russia. Political tensions with Russia have contributed to the 2006 Russian embargo of Georgian wine, Russia claimed Georgia produced counterfeit wine. It was an "official" reason, but the instability of economic relations with Russia is well known, as they use the economic ties for political purposes.[320] Counterfeiting problems stem from mislabelling by foreign producers and falsified "Georgian Wine" labels on wines produced outside of Georgia and imported into Russia under the auspices of being Georgian produced.[320] The shipment of counterfeit wine has been primarily channelled through Russian managed customs checkpoints in Russian-occupied Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where no inspection and regulation occurs.[320]
Sports
The most popular sports in Georgia are football, basketball, rugby union, wrestling, judo, and weightlifting. Rugby is considered Georgia's national sport.[321] Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; the Romans were fascinated with Georgians' physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancient Iberia.[322] Wrestling remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and some historians think that the Greco-Roman style of wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements.[323]
Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of wrestling is the Kakhetian style. There were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. For example, the Khevsureti region of Georgia has three styles of wrestling. Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia were polo, and Lelo, a traditional Georgian game very similar to rugby.[324]
The first and only race circuit in the Caucasian region is located in Georgia. Rustavi International Motorpark originally built in 1978, was re-opened in 2012 after total reconstruction[325] costing $20 million. The track satisfies the FIA Grade 2 requirements and currently hosts the Legends car racing series and Formula Alfa competitions.[326]
Basketball was always one of the notable sports in Georgia, and Georgia had a few very famous Soviet Union national team members, such as Otar Korkia, Mikheil Korkia, Zurab Sakandelidze and Levan Moseshvili. Dinamo Tbilisi won the prestigious EuroLeague competition in 1962. Georgia has had five players in the NBA: Vladimir Stepania, Jake Tsakalidis, Nikoloz Tskitishvili, Tornike Shengelia and former Golden State Warriors centre Zaza Pachulia. Other notable basketball players include the two time EuroLeague champion Giorgi Shermadini and EuroLeague players Manuchar Markoishvili and Viktor Sanikidze. The sport is regaining its popularity in the country recently, and the Georgia national basketball team has qualified for the EuroBasket tournament five consecutive times since its first appearance in 2011.[citation needed]
There are a number of world-class Georgian MMA fighters. Ilia Topuria, Merab Dvalishvili, Giga Chikadze and Roman Dolidze are highly ranked fighters currently signed with the UFC.
Georgian athletes have won a total of 40 Olympic medals, mostly in wrestling, judo and weightlifting.[327] Competitive bodybuilding sanctioned by the European IFBB is also popular in the country.[328]
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See also
Notes
- As result of the 2024 Georgian parliamentary election and the subsequent constitutional crisis, key political positions and the legitimacy of Georgia's parliament have been disputed. Opposition forces have contested the legitimacy of Kavelashvili, and the outgoing president Salome Zourabichvili has claimed to continue to be legitimate president.[4][5][6] Also, international platforms have disputed the legitimacy of the de facto Georgian authorities after the 2024 elections, including the European Parliament.[7]
- Georgian: საქართველო, romanized: sakartvelo, IPA: [sakʰartʰʷelo] ⓘ
- Excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia, the two partially recognized states under Russian occupation. The government of Georgia considers the two republics as integral parts of the country, with international support.
- Combined population of urban (23,433 in 1922) and rural (2,326 in 1917) communities.[246]
- Estimated 14,000 in 1922.[247]
References
Sources
External links
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