1924–1927: Succeeding Lenin

Lenin died in January 1924.^[93] Stalin took charge of the funeral and was a pallbearer. The Politburo embalmed Lenin's corpse and placed it within a mausoleum in Red Square.^[94] It was incorporated into a growing personality cult devoted to Lenin, with Petrograd being renamed "Leningrad" that year.^[95] To bolster his image as a devoted Leninist, Stalin gave 9 lectures at Sverdlov University on the Foundations of Leninism.^[96] During the 13th Party Congress in 1924, Lenin's Testament was read only to the leaders of the provincial delegations.^[97] Embarrassed by its contents, Stalin offered his resignation as General Secretary; this act of humility saved him, and he was retained in the position.^[98] According to Boris Bazhanov, Stalin was jubilant over Lenin's death while "publicly putting on the mask of grief".^[99]

As General Secretary, Stalin had a free hand in making appointments to his own staff.^[100] Favouring new party members from proletarian backgrounds to the "Old Bolsheviks" who tended to be middle class university graduates,^[101] he ensured he had loyalists dispersed across the regions.^[102] Stalin had much contact with young party functionaries,^[103] and the desire for promotion led many provincial figures to seek to impress Stalin.^[104] Stalin developed close relations with the trio at the heart of the secret police: Felix Dzerzhinsky, Genrikh Yagoda, and Vyacheslav Menzhinsky.^[105] In his private life, he divided his time between his Kremlin apartment and a dacha at Zubalova;^[106] his wife gave birth to a daughter, Svetlana, in February 1926.^[107]

In the wake of Lenin's death, a power struggle emerged to become his successor: alongside Stalin was Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, and Mikhail Tomsky.^[108] Stalin saw Trotsky — whom he personally despised^[109] — as the main obstacle to his dominance.^[110] While Lenin had been ill Stalin, with Kamenev and Zinoviev had formed an unofficial Triumvirate (known by its Russian name Troika), an alliance aimed at Trotsky.^[111] Although Zinoviev was concerned about Stalin's growing authority, he rallied behind him at the 13th Congress as a counterweight to Trotsky, who now led a faction known as the Left Opposition.^[112] The Left Opposition believed the NEP conceded too much to capitalism; Stalin was called a "rightist" for his support of the policy.^[113] Stalin built up a retinue of supporters in the Central Committee,^[114] while the Left Opposition were gradually removed from their positions of influence.^[115] He was supported in this by Bukharin, who believed that the Left Opposition's proposals would plunge the Soviet Union into instability.^[116]

In late 1924, Stalin moved against Kamenev and Zinoviev, removing their supporters from key positions.^[117] In 1925, the two moved into open opposition to Stalin and Bukharin.^[118] At the 14th Party Congress in December, they launched an unsuccessful attack against Stalin's faction.^[119] Stalin accused Kamenev and Zinoviev of reintroducing factionalism, and thus instability.^[119] In mid-1926, Kamenev and Zinoviev joined with Trotsky's supporters to form the United Opposition against Stalin;^[120] in October they agreed to stop factional activity under threat of expulsion, and later publicly recanted their views.^[121] The factionalist arguments continued, with Stalin threatening to resign in October and December 1926, and again in December 1927.^[122] In October 1927, Zinoviev and Trotsky were removed from the Central Committee;^[123] the latter was exiled to Kazakhstan and deported from the country in 1929.^[124] Some United Opposition members who were repentant were later returned to government.^[125]

Stalin was now the party's supreme leader,^[126] although he was not the head of government, a task he entrusted to ally Vyacheslav Molotov.^[127] Other important supporters on the Politburo were Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, and Sergo Ordzhonikidze,^[128] with Stalin ensuring his allies ran state institutions.^[129] At this point "Stalin was the leader of the oligarchs but he was far from a dictator".^[130] His growing influence was reflected in naming of locations after him; in June 1924 the Ukrainian mining town of Yuzovka became Stalino,^[131] and in April 1925, Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad on the order of Mikhail Kalinin and Avel Enukidze.^[132] In 1926, Stalin published On Questions of Leninism.^[133] Here, he argued for the concept of "socialism in one country", which he presented as an orthodox Leninist perspective. It nevertheless clashed with established Bolshevik views that socialism could only be achieved globally through the process of world revolution.^[133]

1927–1931: Dekulakisation, collectivisation, and industrialisation

Economic policy

We have fallen behind the advanced countries by fifty to a hundred years. We must close that gap in ten years. Either we do this or we'll be crushed.

This is what our obligations before the workers and peasants of the USSR dictate to us.

— Stalin, February 1931^[134]

The Soviet Union lagged behind the industrial development of Western countries,^[135] and there had been a shortfall of grain; 1927 produced only 70% of grain produced in 1926.^[136] Stalin's government feared attack from other countries.^[137] Many communists, including in Komsomol, OGPU, and the Red Army, were eager to be rid of the NEP and its market-oriented approach;^[138] they had concerns about those who profited from the policy: affluent peasants known as "kulaks" and small business owners or "NEPmen".^[139] Stalin turned against the NEP, which put him on a course to the "left" even of Trotsky or Zinoviev.^[140]

In early 1928, Stalin travelled to Novosibirsk, where he alleged that kulaks were hoarding grain and ordered them be arrested and their grain confiscated, with Stalin bringing much of the grain back to Moscow with him in February.^[141] At his command, grain procurement squads surfaced across West Siberia and the Urals, with violence breaking out between these squads and the peasantry.^[142] Stalin announced that both kulaks and the "middle peasants" must be coerced into releasing their harvest.^[143] Bukharin and other Central Committee members were angry they had not been consulted about this measure.^[144] In January 1930, the Politburo approved the liquidation of the kulak class who were exiled to other parts of the country or concentration camps.^[145]^[146] By July 1930, over 320,000 households had been affected by the de-kulakisation policy.^[145] According to biographer Dmitri Volkogonov, de-kulakisation was "the first mass terror applied by Stalin in his own country."^[147]

Thumb — Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov with a fellow miner; Stalin's government initiated the Stakhanovite movement to encourage hard work^[148]

In 1929, the Politburo announced the mass collectivisation of agriculture,^[149] establishing both kolkhozy collective farms and sovkhoz state farms.^[150] Stalin barred kulaks from joining these collectives.^[151] Although officially voluntary, many peasants joined the collectives out of fear they would face the fate of the kulaks.^[152] By 1932, about 62% of households involved in agriculture were part of collectives, and by 1936 this had risen to 90%.^[153] Many collectivised peasants resented the loss of their private farmland,^[154] and productivity slumped.^[155] Famine broke out in many areas,^[156] with the Politburo frequently ordering distribution of emergency food relief to these regions.^[157]

Armed peasant uprisings against dekulakisation and collectivisation broke out in Ukraine, the North Caucasus, Southern Russia, and Central Asia, reaching their apex in March 1930; these were suppressed by the army.^[158] Stalin responded with an article insisting that collectivisation was voluntary and blaming violence on local officials.^[159] Although he and Stalin had been close for many years,^[160] Bukharin expressed concerns and regarded them as a return to Lenin's old "war communism" policy. By mid-1928, he was unable to rally sufficient support in the party to oppose the reforms.^[161] In November 1929 Stalin removed him from the Politburo.^[162]

Officially, the Soviet Union had replaced the "irrationality" and "wastefulness" of a market economy with a planned economy organised along a long-term and scientific framework; in reality, Soviet economics were based on ad hoc commandments issued often to make short-term targets.^[163] In 1928, the first five-year plan was launched, its main focus on boosting heavy industry;^[164] it was finished a year ahead of schedule, in 1932.^[165] The USSR underwent a massive economic transformation.^[166] New mines were opened, new cities like Magnitogorsk constructed, and work on the White Sea–Baltic Canal began.^[166] Millions of peasants moved to the cities, although urban house building could not keep up with the demand.^[166] Large debts were accrued purchasing foreign-made machinery.^[167]

Many of major construction projects, including the White Sea–Baltic Canal and the Moscow Metro, were constructed largely through forced labour.^[168] The last elements of workers' control over industry were removed, with factory managers increasing their authority and receiving privileges;^[169] Stalin defended wage disparity by pointing to Marx's argument that it was necessary during the lower stages of socialism.^[170] To promote intensification of labour, medals and awards as well as the Stakhanovite movement were introduced.^[148] Stalin's message was that socialism was being established in the USSR while capitalism was crumbling amid the Wall Street crash.^[171] His speeches and articles reflected his utopian vision of the Soviet Union rising to unparalleled heights of human development, creating a "new Soviet person".^[172]

Cultural and foreign policy

In 1928, Stalin declared that class war between the proletariat and their enemies would intensify as socialism developed.^[173] He warned of a "danger from the right".^[174] The first major show trial in the USSR was the Shakhty Trial of 1928, in which middle-class "industrial specialists" were convicted of sabotage.^[175] From 1929 to 1930, show trials were held to intimidate opposition:^[176] these included the Industrial Party Trial, Menshevik Trial, and Metro-Vickers Trial.^[177] Aware that the ethnic majority may have concerns about being ruled by a Georgian,^[178] he promoted ethnic Russians throughout the state hierarchy and made Russian compulsory throughout schools, albeit to be used in tandem with local languages in areas with non-Russian majorities.^[179] Nationalist sentiment among ethnic minorities was suppressed.^[180] Conservative social policies were promoted to enhance social discipline and boost population growth; this included a focus on strong family units and motherhood, re-criminalisation of homosexuality, restrictions on abortion and divorce, and abolition of the Zhenotdel women's department.^[181]

Stalin desired a "cultural revolution",^[182] entailing both creation of a culture for the "masses" and wider dissemination of previously elite culture.^[183] He oversaw proliferation of schools, newspapers, and libraries, as well as advancement of literacy and numeracy.^[184] Socialist realism was promoted throughout the arts,^[185] while Stalin wooed prominent writers, namely Maxim Gorky, Mikhail Sholokhov, and Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy.^[186] He expressed patronage for scientists whose research fitted within his preconceived interpretation of Marxism; for instance, he endorsed the research of agrobiologist Trofim Lysenko despite the fact that it was rejected by the majority of Lysenko's scientific peers as pseudo-scientific.^[187] The government's anti-religious campaign was re-intensified,^[188] with increased funding given to the League of Militant Atheists.^[180] Priests, imams, and Buddhist monks faced persecution.^[176] Many religious buildings were demolished, most notably Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, destroyed in 1931 to make way for the Palace of the Soviets.^[189] Religion retained an influence over the population; in the 1937 census, 57% of respondents were willing to admit to being religious.^[190]

Throughout the 1920s, Stalin placed a priority on foreign policy.^[191] He personally met with a range of Western visitors, including George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells, both of whom were impressed with him.^[192] Through the Communist International, Stalin's government exerted a strong influence over Marxist parties elsewhere;^[193] initially, Stalin left the running of the organisation largely to Bukharin.^[194] At its 6th Congress in July 1928, Stalin informed delegates that the main threat to socialism came from non-Marxist socialists and social democrats, whom he called "social fascists";^[195] Stalin recognised that in many countries, the social democrats were the Marxist-Leninists' main rivals for working-class support.^[196] This preoccupation with opposing rival leftists concerned Bukharin, who regarded the growth of fascism and the far right across Europe as a greater threat.^[194] After Bukharin's departure, Stalin placed the Communist International under the administration of Dmitry Manuilsky and Osip Piatnitsky.^[193]

In 1929, Stalin's son Yakov unsuccessfully attempted suicide, shooting himself in the chest and narrowly missing his heart; his failure earned the contempt of Stalin, who is reported to have brushed off the attempt by saying "He can't even shoot straight."^[197]^[198] His relationship with Nadezhda was strained amid their arguments and her mental health problems.^[199] In November 1932, after a group dinner in the Kremlin in which Stalin flirted with other women, Nadezhda shot herself.^[200] Publicly, the cause of death was given as appendicitis; Stalin also concealed the real cause of death from his children.^[201] Stalin's friends noted that he underwent a significant change following her suicide, becoming emotionally harder.^[202]

1932–1939: Major crises

Famine

Within the Soviet Union, civic disgruntlement against Stalin's government was widespread.^[203] Social unrest in urban areas led Stalin to ease some economic policies in 1932.^[204] In May 1932, he introduced kolkhoz markets where peasants could trade surplus produce.^[205] Penal sanctions became harsher; a decree in August 1932 made the theft of even a handful of grain a capital offense.^[206] The second five-year plan had reduced quotas from the first, focusing more on living conditions,^[204] housing, and consumer goods production.^[204] Emphasis on armament production increased after Adolf Hitler became German chancellor in 1933.^[207]

The Soviet Union experienced a major famine in 1932–33,^[208] with 5–7 million deaths.^[209] The worst affected areas were Ukraine, Southern Russia, Kazakhstan and the North Caucasus.^[210] Historians debate whether the famine was intentional;^[211] no documents show Stalin explicitly ordered starvation.^[212] Poor weather led to bad harvests in 1931 and 1932,^[213] compounded by years of declining productivity.^[209]

Rapid industrialization policies, neglect of crop rotation, and failure to build reserve grain stocks exacerbated the famine.^[214] Stalin blamed hostile elements and sabotage among peasants;^[215] the government provided limited food aid to famine-stricken rural areas, prioritizing urban workers.^[216] In effect, Stalin valued the progress of Soviet industrialization over peasant lives.^[217] Grain exports declined heavily.^[218] Stalin did not acknowledge his policies' role in the famine,^[206] which was concealed from foreign observers.^[219]

Ideological and foreign affairs

In 1935–36, Stalin oversaw a new constitution with liberal features designed as propaganda.^[220] He declared that "socialism, the first phase of communism, has been achieved."^[220] In 1938, the History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks), was released,^[221] which biographer Robert Conquest called the "central text of Stalinism".^[222] Authorised Stalin biographies were also published,^[223] though Stalin preferred to be seen as the embodiment of the Communist Party, rather than have his life story explored.^[224] During the late 1930s, Stalin placed "a few limits on the worship of his own greatness".^[224] By 1938, Stalin's inner circle had gained a degree of stability.^[225]

Seeking better international relations, in 1934 the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations, from which it had previously been excluded.^[226] Stalin initiated confidential communications with Hitler in October 1933, shortly after the latter came to power.^[227] Stalin admired Hitler, particularly his manoeuvres to remove rivals within the Nazi Party in the Night of the Long Knives.^[228] Stalin nevertheless recognised the threat posed by fascism and sought to establish better links with the liberal democracies of Western Europe;^[229] in May 1935, the Soviets signed a treaty of mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia.^[230] At the Communist International's 7th Congress, held in July–August 1935, the Soviet government encouraged Marxist-Leninists to unite with other leftists as part of a popular front against fascism.^[231]

When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Soviets sent military aid to the Republican faction faction, including 648 aircraft and 407 tanks, along with 3,000 Soviet troops and 42,000 members of the International Brigades.^[232] Stalin took a personal involvement in the Spanish situation.^[233] Germany and Italy backed the Nationalist faction, which was ultimately victorious in March 1939.^[234] With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed a non-aggression pact.^[235] Stalin aided the Chinese Communist Party as they had suspended their civil war with the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists and formed the desired United Front against Japanese aggression.

The Great Terror

Thumb — Exhumed mass grave of the Vinnitsia massacre

Stalin's approach to state repression was often contradictory.^[236] In May 1933, he released many convicted of minor offences, ordering the security services not to enact further mass arrests and deportations.^[237] In September 1934, he launched a commission to investigate false imprisonments; that same month he called for the execution of workers at the Stalin Metallurgical Factory accused of spying for Japan.^[236]^[237] However, after Sergey Kirov was murdered in December 1934, Stalin became increasingly concerned about assassination threats,^[238] and state repression intensified.^[239] Stalin issued a decree establishing NKVD troikas which could mete out rulings without involving the courts.^[240] In 1935, he ordered the NKVD to expel suspected counterrevolutionaries from urban areas;^[207] over 11,000 were expelled from Leningrad alone in early 1935.^[207] In 1936, Nikolai Yezhov became head of the NKVD.^[241]

Stalin orchestrated the arrest and execution of opponents in the Communist Party and the Central Committee.^[242] The first Moscow Trial in August 1936 saw Kamenev and Zinoviev executed.^[243] The second trial took place in January 1937,^[244] and the third in March 1938, with Bukharin and Rykov executed.^[245] } By late 1937, all remnants of collective leadership were gone from the Politburo, which was now effectively under Stalin's control. ^[246] There were mass expulsions from the party,^[247] with Stalin ordering foreign communist parties to purge anti-Stalinist elements.^[248]

Repressions intensified further from December 1936 until November 1938, known as the Great Purge.^[250] In May 1937, Stalin ordered the arrest of most military Supreme Command members, and mass arrests followed.^[251] By late 1937, purges extended beyond the party to the wider population.^[252] In July 1937, the Politburo ordered a purge of "anti-Soviet elements" in society, targeting anti-Stalin Bolsheviks, former Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries, priests, ex-White Army soldiers, and common criminals.^[253] Stalin and Yezhov signed Order No. 00447 in July 1937, listing 268,950 people for arrest, with 75,950 executed.^[254] Stalin initiated "national operations", the ethnic cleansing of non-Soviet ethnic groups— among them Poles, Germans, Latvians, Finns, Greeks, Koreans, and Chinese — through internal or external exile.^[255] Approximately 1.6 million people were arrested, 700,000 shot, and an unknown number died under NKVD torture.^[256]

During the 1930s and 1940s, NKVD groups assassinated defectors and opponents abroad;^[257] in August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, eliminating Stalin's last major opponent.^[258] These purges replaced most of the old guard with younger officials loyal to Stalin.^[259] Party functionaries readily carried out their commands and sought to ingratiate themselves with Stalin, to avoid becoming victims.^[260] Such functionaries often carried out more arrests and executions than their quotas set by government.^[261]

Stalin initiated all key decisions during the Terror, personally directing many operations.^[262] Historians debate his motives,^[256] noting his personal writings from the period were "unusually convoluted and incoherent", filled with claims about enemies encircling him.^[263] He feared a domestic fifth column in the event of war with Japan and Germany,^[264] particularly after right-wing forces overthrew the leftist Spanish government.^[265] The Great Terror ended when Yezhov was replaced by Lavrentiy Beria,^[266] a fellow Georgian completely loyal to Stalin.^[267] Yezhov was arrested in April 1939 and executed in 1940.^[268] The Terror damaged the Soviet Union's reputation abroad, particularly among leftist sympathizers.^[269] As it wound down, Stalin sought to deflect responsibility,^[270] blaming its "excesses" and "violations of law" on Yezhov.^[271] According to historian James Harris, the purges were driven by an excessive fear of counterrevolution.^[272]