Voiced alveolar fricative

The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative is being described.

• The symbol for the alveolar sibilant is ⟨z⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is z. The IPA letter ⟨z⟩ is not normally used for dental or postalveolar sibilants in narrow transcription unless modified by a diacritic (⟨z̪⟩ and ⟨z̠⟩ respectively).
• The IPA symbol for the alveolar non-sibilant fricative is derived by means of diacritics; it can be ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ɹ̝⟩.

Voiced coronal fricatives

		Dental	Denti- alveolar	Alveolar	Post-alveolar
					Retracted	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Alveolo- palatal
Sibilant	plain	z̪	z̟	z͇	z̠	ʐ	ʒ	ʑ
Non-sibilant		ð		ð͇		ɻ̝
	tapped			ɾ̞

Coronal sibilants

		IPA symbol	meaning
place of articulation	passive (mouth)	⟨z̪⟩	dental
		⟨z̟⟩	advanced (denti-alveolar)
		⟨z͇⟩	alveolar
		⟨z̠⟩	retracted (postalveolar)
	active (tongue)	⟨z̺⟩	apical
		⟨z̻⟩	laminal
		⟨ʐ⟩	retroflex
	secondary	⟨zʲ⟩	palatalized coronal
		⟨ʑ⟩	alveolo-palatal
		⟨ʒ⟩	palato-alveolar
		⟨zʷ⟩	labialized coronal
		⟨zˠ⟩	velarized coronal
		⟨zˤ⟩	pharyngealized coronal
voice-onset time		⟨zʱ⟩	breathy coronal

Voiced alveolar sibilant

Voiced alveolar fricative
z
IPA Number	133
Audio sample
source · help
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	z
Unicode (hex)	U+007A
X-SAMPA	z
Braille

Voiced laminal dentalized alveolar sibilant
z̪

Voiced laminal predorsal alveolar sibilant
z̟

Voiced alveolar retracted sibilant
z̠
zᶾ
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	z​̺
Unicode (hex)	U+007A U+033A

The voiced alveolar sibilant is common across European languages, but is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically compared to the voiceless variant. Only about 28% of the world's languages contain a voiced dental or alveolar sibilant. Moreover, 85% of the languages with some form of [z] are languages of Europe, Africa, or Western Asia.

Features

• Its manner of articulation is sibilant fricative, which means it is generally produced by channeling air flow along a groove in the back of the tongue up to the place of articulation, at which point it is focused against the sharp edge of the nearly clenched teeth, causing high-frequency turbulence.
• There are at least three specific variants of [z]:
  • Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [z] is very strong.^[1]
  • Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
  • Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to [ʒ] or laminal [ʐ].
• Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
• It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
• It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
• Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Dentalized laminal alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Armenian	Eastern[2]	զարդ/zart	[z̪ɑɾt̪ʰ]ⓘ	'decoration'
Azerbaijani[3]		zoğ	[z̪ɔʁ]	'sprout'
Belarusian[4]		база/baza	[ˈbäz̪ä]	'base'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology
Bulgarian[5]		езеро/ezero	[ˈɛz̪ɛro]	'lake'	Contrasts with palatalized form.
Czech[6]		zima	[ˈz̪ɪmä]	'winter'	See Czech phonology
English	Multicultural London[7]	zoo	[z̪ʏˑy̯]	'zoo'	See English phonology
French[8][9]		zèbre	[z̪ɛbʁ]	'zebra'	See French phonology
Hungarian[10]		zálog	[ˈz̪äːl̪oɡ]	'pledge'	See Hungarian phonology
Kashubian[11]		[example needed]
Kazakh[12]		заң/zań	[z̪ɑŋ]	'law'
Kyrgyz[13]		заң/zań
Latvian[14]		zars	[z̪ärs̪]	'branch'	See Latvian phonology
Macedonian[15]		зошто/zošto	[ˈz̪ɔʃt̪ɔ]	'why'	See Macedonian phonology
Mirandese		daprendizaige	[d̪əpɾẽd̪iˈz̪ajʒ(ɯ̽)]	'learning'	Contrasts seven sibilants altogether, preserving medieval Ibero-Romance contrasts.
Polish[1][16]		zero	[ˈz̪ɛrɔ]ⓘ	'zero'	See Polish phonology
Portuguese	Most speakers	Estados Unidos	[isˈt̪ad̪uz̪‿ʉˈnid͡zᶶ(ˢ)]	'United States'	See Portuguese phonology
Romanian[17]		zar	[z̪är]	'dice'	See Romanian phonology
Russian[18]		заезжать / zaězžať	[z̪əɪˈʑʑætʲ]ⓘ	'to pick up'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Russian phonology
Serbo-Croatian[19][20]		зајам / zajam	[z̪ǎːjäm]	'loan'	See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Slovak		zima	[ˈz̪imä]	'winter'
Slovene[21]		zima	[ˈz̪ìːmá]	'winter'
Turkish[8][22]		göz	[ɟø̞̈z̪]	'eye'	See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian[23]		зуб/zub	[z̪ub]	'tooth'	Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology
Upper Sorbian[24]		koza	[ˈkɔz̪ä]	'goat'
Uzbek[25]		zafar		'victory'
Vietnamese	Hanoi[26]	da	[z̪äː]	'skin'	See Vietnamese phonology

Non-retracted alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Adyghe		зы	[ˈzə]ⓘ	'one'
Albanian		zjarr	[zjar]	'fire'
Arabic	Standard[27]	زائِر	[ˈzaːʔir]	'visitor'	See Arabic phonology
Assamese		জলকীয়া	[zɔlɔkija]	'chili'
Assyrian		ܙܢ̱ܓܐ zìga	[ziɡa]	'bell'
Bengali		নামাজ	[namaz]	'Salah'	Mostly in loanwords and often replaced by [dʒ]. See Bengali phonology
Breton		iliz	[iliz]	'church'
Chechen		зурма / zurma	[zuɾma]	'music'
Dutch[28][29]		zaad	[z̻aːt̻]	'seed'	Laminal; may have only mid-to-low pitched friction in the Netherlands.[28][29] See Dutch phonology
Emilian	Bolognese	raṡån	[raːz̺ʌŋ]	'reason'	Palatalized apical; may be [ʐ] or [ʒ] instead.
English		zoo	[zuː]ⓘ	'zoo'	Absent from some Scottish and Asian dialects. See English phonology
Esperanto		kuzo	[ˈkuzo]	'cousin'	See Esperanto phonology
Georgian[30]		ზარი	[ˈzɑɾi]	'bell'
Greek	Athens dialect[31]	ζάλη / záli	[ˈz̻ali]	'dizziness'	See Modern Greek phonology
Hebrew		זאב	[zeˈʔev]	'wolf'	See Modern Hebrew phonology
Hindustani	Hindi	ज़मीन	[zəmiːn]	'land'	May be replaced in Hindi by [dʒ]. See Hindustani phonology
	Urdu	زمین
Japanese[32]		全部 / zenbu	[zembɯ]	'everything'	See Japanese phonology
Kabardian		зы	[ˈzə]ⓘ	'one'
Kalaw Lagaw Ya		zilamiz	[zilʌmiz]	'go'
Kashmiri		ज़ानुन / زانُن	[zaːnun]	'to know'
Khmer		បែលហ្ស៊ិក / bêlhsĭk	[ɓaelzɨk]	noun: 'Belgium', 'Belgian(s)' adjective: 'Belgian'	See Khmer phonology
Konda[33][34]		sunz	[sunz]	'to sleep'
Malay		beza	[bezə]	'difference'
Maltese		żelu	[zelu]	'zeal'
Marathi		जर	[zər]	'if'	See Marathi phonology.
Occitan	Limousin	jòune	[ˈzɒwne]	'young'	See Occitan phonology
Persian		روز	[ɾuːz]	'day'
Portuguese[35]		casa	[ˈkazɐ]	'house'	See Portuguese phonology
Punjabi	Gurmukhi	ਹਜ਼ਾਰ	[həˈzaːr]	'thousand'	May be replaced by [dʒ] in Gurmukhi (Indian) varieties.
	Shahmukhi	ہزار
Spanish	Andalusian	comunismo	[ko̞muˈnizmo̞]	'Communism'	Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants, when it is not debuccalized to [h ~ ɦ]. Present in dialects which realize /s/ as a non-retracted alveolar fricative. Before /d/ it is dental [z̪].
	Latin American
	Filipino
Swahili		lazima	[lɑzimɑ]	'must'
Tamil	Jaffna Tamil	கடுதாசி	[kɐɖuðaːzi]	'letter'	Was only reported for 1 speaker in the sample but he pronounced it regularly.[36]
West Frisian[37]		sizze	[ˈsɪzə]	'to say'	It never occurs in word-initial positions. See West Frisian phonology
Yi		ꍂ / ssy	[zɹ̩˧]	'generation'
Yiddish		זון / zien	[zin]	'son'
Zapotec	Tilquiapan[38]	guanaz	[ɡʷanaz]	'went to grab'

Retracted alveolar

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Catalan[39][40]		zel	[ˈz̺ɛɫ]	'zeal'	Apical. See Catalan phonology
Galician		mesmo	[ˈme̞z̺mo̞]	'same'	Apical. Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants. Before /d/ it is pronounced dentally [z̪].
Greek[41]		μάζα / máza	[ˈmɐz̠ɐ]	'mass'	See Modern Greek phonology
Italian	Central Italy[42]	caso	[ˈkäːz̠o]	'case'	Present in Lazio north of Cape Linaro,[42] most of Umbria[42] (save Perugia and the extreme south)[42] and Le Marche south of the Potenza.[42]
	Northern Italy[43][44]				Apical.[45] Present in many areas north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line.[46][47] See Italian phonology
	Sicily[42]				Present south and west of a line drawn from Syracuse to Cefalù.[42]
Low German[48]		[example needed]
Maldivian		zaraafaa	[z̺aˈraːfaː]	'giraffe'
Mirandese		eisistir	[e̞jz̺is̺ˈtiɾ]	'to exist'	Apical. Mirandese and neighboring Portuguese dialects were the only surviving oral tradition to preserve all seven mediaeval Ibero-Romance sibilants: ⟨ch⟩ /tʃ/, ⟨x⟩ /ʃ/, ⟨g⟩/⟨j⟩ /ʒ/, ⟨c⟩/⟨ç⟩ /s̪/, ⟨z⟩ /z̪/, ⟨s⟩/-⟨ss⟩- /s̺/, -⟨s⟩- /z̺/
Occitan	Gascon	casèrna	[kaz̺ɛrno]	'barracks'	See Occitan phonology
	Languedocien	véser	[bez̺e]	'to see'
Piedmontese		amis	[aˈmiz̠]	'friend'	Apical. See Piemontese phonology
Portuguese	Coastal Northern European	[example needed]			Merges with non-retracted /z/. See Portuguese phonology
	Inland Northern European	[example needed]			Apical. Contrasts with non-retracted /z/. See Portuguese phonology
Spanish	Andean	mismo	[ˈmiz̺mo̞]	'same'	Apical. Allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants. Before /d/ it is pronounced dentally [z̪]. See Spanish phonology
	Castilian
	Paisa Region

Variable

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
German	Standard[49]	sauber	[ˈzäʊ̯bɐ]	'clean'	Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical.[49] See Standard German phonology
Italian	Standard[50]	caso	[ˈkäːzo]	'case'	Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[50] See Italian phonology
	Ticino[45]				Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[51] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[45] See Italian phonology

Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative

Voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative
ð̠
ð͇
ɹ̝
d̞
Audio sample
source · help
Encoding
Entity (decimal)	ð​̠
Unicode (hex)	U+00F0 U+0320

Voiced alveolar tapped fricative
ɾ̞
ɹ̝̆
IPA Number	124 430
Audio sample
source · help

The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized), it can represent the sound as in a number of ways including ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ð͇⟩ (retracted or alveolarized [ð], respectively), ⟨ɹ̝⟩ (constricted [ɹ]), or ⟨d̞⟩ (lowered [d]).

Few languages also have the voiced alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief apical alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. It can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show that full occlusion does not occur. Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.^[52]

Features

• Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
• Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
• Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
• It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
• It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
• Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Aragonese	Chistabino[53]	aire	[ˈäi̯ɾ̞e̞]	'air'	Tapped; common realization of /ɾ/.[53]
Czech[54]		čtyři	[ˈt͡ʃtɪɹ̝ɪ]	'four'	May be a fricative trill[54] or a tap fricative instead.[55] It contrasts with /r/ and /ʒ/. See Czech phonology
Dahalo[56]		[káð̠i]		'work'	Apical; only weakly fricated. It is a common intervocalic allophone of /d̠/, and may be an approximant [ð̠˕] or simply a plosive [d] instead.[57]
Dutch[58]		voor	[vöːɹ̝]	'for'	One of many possible realizations of /r/; distribution unclear. See Dutch phonology
Emilian	Bolognese	chèṡ	[ˈkɛːð̠]	'case'	Laminal
English	Scouse[59]	maid	[meɪð̠]	'maid'	Allophone of /d/. See English phonology
	South African[60][61]	round	[ɹ̝æʊ̯nd]	'round'	Apical,[61] present in some urban dialects.[60] See South African English phonology
Icelandic[62][63]		bróðir	[ˈpro͡uːð̠ɪr]	'brother'	Usually apical,[62][63] may be closer to an approximant. See Icelandic phonology
Italian	Sicily[64]	terra	[ˈt̪ɛɹ̝ä]	'earth'	Apical; corresponds to /rr/ in standard Italian.[64] See Italian phonology
Manx		mooar	[muːɹ̝]	'big'	Common word-final realization of /r/.
Spanish[65]	Aragonese	aire	[ˈäi̯ɾ̞e̞]	'air'	Tapped; possible realization of /ɾ/.[65] See Spanish phonology
Swedish	Central Standard[66][67]	vandrare	[²vän̪ːd̪ɹ̝äɹɛ]	'wanderer'	Allophone of /r/ around the Stockholm area. See Swedish phonology
Tacana[68]		[example needed]			Tapped.[68]
Turkish[69]		rüya	[ˈɾ̞yːjɑ]	'dream'	Tapped; word-initial allophone of /ɾ/.[69] See Turkish phonology

Voiced lateral-median fricative

Voiced alveolar lateral–median fricative
ʫ
ð̠ˡ
ɮ͡ð̠
ɮ͡z

Voiceless dental lateral–median fricative
ʫ̪
ðˡ
ɮ̪͡ð

The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a "lisp" fricative) is a consonantal sound. Consonants is pronounced with simultaneous lateral and central airflow.

Features

• Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
• Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
• Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
• It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
• It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
• It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.
• Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Arabic[70][71][72]	Rijal Almaʽa	ضبع	[ðˡˤabʕ]	'hyena'	Classical Arabic *ɮˁ and Modern Standard Arabic [dˤ]
Mehri[73]		ذوفر	[ðˡˤoːfar]	'plait'

See also

• Tongue shape
• Apical consonant
• Laminal consonant
• Index of phonetics articles

Notes

1. Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977:149), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:154)
2. Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
3. Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 136, 139–142.
4. Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
5. Klagstad (1958), p. 46.
6. Palková (1994), p. 228.
7. "english speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
8. Adams (1975), p. 288.
9. Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
10. Szende (1999), p. 104.
11. Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
12. Kara (2002), p. 10.
13. Kara (2003), p. 11.
14. Nau (1998), p. 6.
15. Lunt (1952), p. 1.
16. Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
17. Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}
18. Chew (2003), p. 67.
19. Kordić (2006), p. 5.
20. Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
21. Pretnar & Tokarz (1980:21)
22. Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
23. Buk, Solomija; Mačutek, Ján; Rovenchak, Andrij (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16 (16): 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198. Bibcode:2008arXiv0802.4198B. (PDF ram-verlag.eu)
24. Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
25. Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
26. Thompson (1987), pp. 5 and 7.
27. Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
28. Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
29. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
30. Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
31. Adams (1975), p. 283.
32. Okada (1999), p. 117.
33. Emeneau (1970). sfnp error: no target: CITEREFEmeneau1970 (help)
34. Krishnamurti (2003), p. 70. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFKrishnamurti2003 (help)
35. Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
36. Zvelebil, Kamil (1965). Some features of Ceylon Tamil. Indo-Iranian Journal. Vol. 9. JSTOR. pp. 113–138. JSTOR 24650188.
37. Sipma (1913), p. 16.
38. Merrill (2008), p. 108.
39. Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
40. Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
41. Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
42. Adams (1975), p. 286.
43. Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
44. Canepari (1992), p. 71-72.
45. Canepari (1992), p. 72.
46. Canepari (1992), p. 71.
47. Adams (1975), p. 285.
48. Adams (1975), p. 289.
49. Mangold (2005), p. 50.
50. Canepari (1992), p. 68.
51. Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
52. Laver (1994), p. 263.
53. Mott (2007), pp. 104, 112.
54. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 228–230 and 233.
55. Šimáčková, Podlipský & Chládková (2012), p. 226.
56. Maddieson et al. (1993:34)
57. Maddieson et al. (1993:28, 34)
58. Collins & Mees (2003:199). Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
59. Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
60. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 236.
61. Ogden (2009), p. 92.
62. Pétursson (1971:?), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:145)
63. Grønnum (2005:139)
64. Canepari (1992), pp. 64–65.
65. Mott (2007), p. 112.
66. Engstrand (1999), pp. 141.
67. Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
68. "UPSID r[F". Retrieved 24 January 2016.
69. Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.
70. Heselwood (2013) Phonetic transcription in theory and practice, p 122–123
71. Janet Watson (January 2011). "Lateral fricatives and lateral emphatics in southern Saudi Arabia and Mehri". academia.edu.
72. Watson, Janet (January 2013). "Lateral reflexes of Proto-Semitic D and Dh in Al-Rubūʽah dialect, south-west Saudi Arabic: Electropalatographic and acoustic evidence". Nicht Nur mit Engelszungen: Beiträge zur Semitischen Dialektologie: Festschrift für Werner Arnold.
73. Janet Watson (January 2011). "Lateral fricatives and lateral emphatics in southern Saudi Arabia and Mehri". academia.edu.

References

• Adams, Douglas Q. (1975), "The Distribution of Retracted Sibilants in Medieval Europe", Language, 51 (2): 282–292, doi:10.2307/412855, JSTOR 412855
• Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
• Axundov, Ağamusa (1983), Azərbaycan dilinin fonetikasi, Baku{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Bauer, Laurie; Dienhart, John M.; Hartvigson, Hans H.; Jakobsen, Leif Kvistgaard (1980), American English Pronunciation: Supplement, Comparison with Danish., Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel, OCLC 54869978
• Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005), "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 131–151, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148
• Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 978-88-08-24624-0
• Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809
• Chew, Peter A. (2003), A computational phonology of Russian, Universal Publishers
• Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405
• Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
• Engstrand, Olle (2004), Fonetikens grunder (in Swedish), Lund: Studenlitteratur, ISBN 978-91-44-04238-1
• Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
• Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L. (1999), "French", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–76, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
• Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 978-87-500-3865-8
• Gussenhoven, Carlos (1999), "Dutch", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–77, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
• Honeybone, P (2001), "Lenition inhibition in Liverpool English", English Language and Linguistics, 5 (2): 213–249, doi:10.1017/S1360674301000223, S2CID 91182225
• Jespersen, Otto (1897–1899), Fonetik, Copenhagen: Det Schubotheske Forlag
• Kara, Dávid Somfai (2002), Kazak, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783895864704
• Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895868436
• Klagstad, Harold L. Jr. (1958), The Phonemic System of Colloquial Standard Bulgarian, American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, pp. 42–54
• Kordić, Snježana (2006), Serbo-Croatian, Languages of the World/Materials; 148, Munich & Newcastle: Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-161-1
• Kozintseva, Natalia (1995), Modern Eastern Armenian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895860355
• Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
• Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
• Laver, John (1994), Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-45655-5
• Lin, Hua (2001), A Grammar of Mandarin Chinese, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-642-5
• Lunt, Horace G. (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language, Skopje{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Maddieson, Ian (1984), Patterns of Sound, Cambridge University Press
• Maddieson, Ian; Spajić, Siniša; Sands, Bonny; Ladefoged, Peter (1993), "Phonetic structures of Dahalo", in Maddieson, Ian (ed.), UCLA working papers in phonetics: Fieldwork studies of targeted languages, vol. 84, Los Angeles: The UCLA Phonetics Laboratory Group, pp. 25–65
• Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
• Marotta, Giovanna; Barth, Marlen (2005), "Acoustic and sociolingustic aspects of lenition in Liverpool English" (PDF), Studi Linguistici e Filologici Online, 3 (2): 377–413, archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-02-25, retrieved 2006-03-22
• Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
• Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
• Mott, Brian (2007), "Chistabino (Pyrenean Aragonese)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 103–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002842, hdl:2445/49131
• Nau, Nicole (1998), Latvian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-228-1
• Ogden, Richard (2009), An Introduction to English Phonetics, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd., ISBN 978-0-7486-2540-6
• Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0
• Padluzhny, Ped (1989), Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy, Навука і тэхніка, ISBN 978-5-343-00292-8
• Palková, Zdena (1994), Fonetika a fonologie češtiny, Karolinum, ISBN 978-8070668436
• Pandeli, H; Eska, J; Ball, Martin; Rahilly, J (1997), "Problems of phonetic transcription: the case of the Hiberno-English slit-t", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 27 (1–2): 65–75, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005430, S2CID 145119728
• Pétursson, Magnus (1971), "Étude de la réalisation des consonnes islandaises þ, ð, s, dans la prononciation d'un sujet islandais à partir de la radiocinématographie", Phonetica, 33 (4): 203–216, doi:10.1159/000259344, S2CID 145316121
• Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski
• Puppel, Stanisław; Nawrocka-Fisiak, Jadwiga; Krassowska, Halina (1977), A handbook of Polish pronunciation for English learners, Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, ISBN 9788301012885
• Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1977), A short reference grammar of Gulf Arabic, Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, ISBN 978-0-8165-0570-8
• Rocławski, Bronisław (1976), Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego, Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego
• Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina
• Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
• Šimáčková, Šárka; Podlipský, Václav Jonáš; Chládková, Kateřina (2012), "Czech spoken in Bohemia and Moravia" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 225–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000102
• Sipma, Pieter (1913), Phonology & grammar of modern West Frisian, London: Oxford University Press
• Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar, Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 18, Bloomington: Indiana University
• Szende, Tamás (1999), "Hungarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 104–107, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
• Thelwall, Robin (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266, S2CID 243640727
• Thompson, Laurence C. (1987), A Vietnamese Reference Grammar, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1117-4
• Torreblanca, Máximo (1988), "Latín Basium, Castellano Beso, Catalán Bes, Portugués Beijo", Hispanic Review, 56 (3): 343–348, doi:10.2307/474023, JSTOR 474023
• Watson, Kevin (2007), "Liverpool English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 351–360, doi:10.1017/s0025100307003180
• Wheeler, Max W. (2005), The Phonology Of Catalan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925814-7
• Yavuz, Handan; Balcı, Ayla (2011), Turkish Phonology and Morphology, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi, ISBN 978-975-06-0964-0
• Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-25, retrieved 2015-04-12

External links

• List of languages with [z] on PHOIBLE
• List of languages with [ɹ̝] on PHOIBLE
• List of languages with [ɾ̞] on PHOIBLE